内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which finding shows that long-standing hypertension has caused target organ damage?
During a cardiac arrest, the monitor shows an organised rhythm, but there is no pulse. What should the team do?
一名 AKI 患者的导尿管没有任何尿液引出。哪项快速床旁检查有助于排除肾后性原因?
一名重度颅脑损伤患者不睁眼,对疼痛的反应是双臂伸直并向内旋转、双腿伸直。这提示什么?
Which measure helps reduce the risk of delirium in an older surgical patient?
On day 5 after bowel resection, a patient has a fever, tachycardia and worsening abdominal pain, and the drain contains brown, faeculent fluid. What is most likely?
A nurse suspects that an older patient is being financially abused by a relative. What should the nurse do?
A patient on metformin with reduced kidney function is due a CT scan with IV contrast. Why might metformin be withheld?
Why must vitamin B12 deficiency be ruled out before treating macrocytic anemia with folic acid alone?
A patient with heavy alcohol use and a poor diet has a hemoglobin of 10.1 g/dL (101 g/L), an MCV of 110 fL and a low red cell folate. Which explanation fits best?
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.25,PaCO₂ 42 mmHg (5.6 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。每个 QRS 波群对应多少个每个 QRS 对应的扑动波(n:1 传导中的 n)?
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
A patient arrives in the recovery room after general anesthesia. What does the nurse assess first?
Two patients on the unit have the same surname. What should the nurse do before giving a medication?
答案: D · Left ventricular hypertrophy on the ECG
Target organ damage from hypertension includes left ventricular hypertrophy, retinopathy, chronic kidney disease with proteinuria, and stroke. Its presence changes treatment urgency and targets.
答案: B · Continue CPR and give adrenaline (epinephrine), as the rhythm is non-shockable
Pulseless electrical activity is a non-shockable rhythm. Treatment is high-quality CPR, adrenaline as soon as possible and repeated, and a search for reversible causes (the 4 Hs and 4 Ts, such as hypoxia, hypovolaemia, tension pneumothorax and tamponade). Shocks are only for VF and pulseless VT.
答案: A · 检查导尿管有无扭曲或堵塞,并做膀胱扫描
导尿管堵塞或扭曲,或膀胱膨胀,可以引起或模拟无尿。检查管路、在允许时冲洗或更换导尿管,以及做膀胱扫描,可迅速发现梗阻。肾脏超声用于寻找肾积水等更上方的梗阻。
答案: C · 伸展性(去大脑)姿势:严重的脑干损伤
对疼痛出现异常伸展(GCS 运动评分 2)提示脑干或其附近的严重损伤,预后比异常屈曲(去皮质姿势,运动评分 3)更差。任何新出现的异常姿势都需要立即上报。
答案: A · Making sure they have their glasses and hearing aids
Delirium prevention includes using glasses and hearing aids, orientation, good sleep, hydration, nutrition, early mobilisation, pain control, avoiding unnecessary sedatives and involving family.
答案: D · An anastomotic leak
Leakage at the join in the bowel causes peritonitis and sepsis, usually a few days after surgery. Faeculent drain fluid makes it very likely. It needs urgent surgical review, sepsis care and often return to theatre.
答案: B · Raise the concern through the local safeguarding (adult protection) procedure
Financial abuse is a form of adult abuse. Nurses report concerns through safeguarding procedures, document facts accurately and involve the patient as appropriate.
答案: D · There is a risk of lactic acidosis if kidney function worsens
Iodinated contrast can worsen kidney function, and metformin can then accumulate and cause lactic acidosis. Local policy guides when to stop and restart it.
答案: B · Folic acid can fix the anemia while B12-related nerve damage continues
Folic acid can improve the blood picture in B12 deficiency but does not prevent nerve damage. Giving folate alone can therefore mask the deficiency while neurological damage progresses. Both levels are checked before treatment.
答案: D · Folate deficiency, made worse by a direct alcohol effect
Poor diet and alcohol reduce folate intake and absorption, causing macrocytic anemia, and alcohol itself also raises the MCV. Iron deficiency and thalassemia cause small cells. Folate is replaced after B12 deficiency is excluded, and thiamine is also commonly given.核对依据: Folate-deficiency anemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: PaCO₂ = 23 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 合并呼吸性酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 每个 QRS 对应的扑动波 = 2
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 节律
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
答案: B · Airway patency and breathing
After anesthesia, the airway can be blocked by the tongue or secretions, and breathing may be depressed. The airway and breathing are checked first, followed by circulation and the wound.
答案: B · Check two identifiers against the wristband and the medication record
The nurse uses at least two identifiers, such as full name and date of birth, checked against the wristband and record. Open questions (“Please tell me your name”) are safer than yes/no questions.
ExamProblems · examproblems.com/courses/medical-surgical-nursing