内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient with bronchiectasis of the right lower lobe is taught postural drainage. How should they be positioned?
A conscious adult in the dining room is suddenly unable to speak, cough or breathe after a mouthful of food. What should the nurse do first?
A patient on peritoneal dialysis has gained weight and has higher glucose levels. Which part of the treatment is the likely cause?
一名长期大剂量服用泼尼松龙的患者在肠道手术后第三天。他们只主诉轻度腹痛,但心率升至 115 次/分,体温 37.4 °C。为什么护士应特别担忧?
When is cold therapy most useful for pain?
In recovery, an awake and anxious patient cannot lift their head, and their breaths are shallow and weak. What is the most likely cause?
What happens in third-degree (complete) heart block?
一名接受高流量吸氧的 COPD 患者变得嗜睡,脉搏洪大,皮肤潮红。血气显示 PaCO2 升高、pH 降低。最可能的原因是什么?
A patient has a calcium of 7.0 mg/dL (1.75 mmol/L) and tingling around the mouth. Which nursing measure is most appropriate?
一名服用噻嗪类利尿剂的患者钠 129 mEq/L,钾 3.2 mEq/L,感觉乏力。哪种解释最合适?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.38,PaCO₂ 51 mmHg (6.8 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 29 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.18,PaCO₂ 77 mmHg (10.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 28 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Fridericia 公式 QTc = QT/∛RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
在 START 分诊中,一名不能行走的成人每分钟呼吸 36 次。该伤员被归入哪一类?
Two call lights go on at the same time. One patient has pain of 7/10 after surgery. The other is a confused patient at high risk of falls who is climbing out of bed alone. Who does the nurse go to first?
答案: C · With the affected lobe uppermost so gravity drains it
Postural drainage places the patient so the affected segment is above the main bronchus, letting gravity move secretions towards the larger airways to be coughed up. It is combined with breathing techniques. Head-down positions are avoided in patients with reflux, recent surgery or breathlessness.
答案: C · Up to five back blows, then up to five abdominal thrusts if needed
For a conscious adult with severe choking, current UK, European and AHA (2025) guidance teach up to five back blows, then up to five abdominal thrusts, repeated until the obstruction clears; some older courses used abdominal thrusts alone. If the person becomes unconscious, CPR is started. Blind finger sweeps can push the object further in.
答案: A · Glucose absorbed from the dialysis fluid
Standard PD fluids contain glucose to pull water out by osmosis. Some glucose is absorbed, adding calories and raising blood glucose. Glucose monitoring and diet advice are needed, and other solutions may be used.
答案: B · 类固醇可掩盖发热、疼痛和腹膜刺激征,隐藏并发症
长期使用类固醇会减弱发热、疼痛和腹肌紧张,因此吻合口漏、脓肿或穿孔可能只表现为心动过速等细微征象。护士应全面评估并及早上报。这些患者在手术前后还需要类固醇覆盖,以预防肾上腺危象。
答案: A · Soon after an acute soft tissue injury, to reduce swelling
Cold reduces swelling, bleeding and nerve conduction in acute injuries. It is wrapped and applied for short periods and avoided on areas with poor circulation or sensation. Heat is better for muscle spasm and stiffness.
答案: A · Residual neuromuscular blockade
Remaining muscle relaxant causes weakness, poor head lift and shallow breathing in an awake patient. The nurse supports breathing, gives oxygen and calls the anaesthetist, who may give a reversal agent.
答案: D · No impulses from the atria reach the ventricles, so they beat independently
In complete heart block the atria and ventricles are dissociated, and a slow escape rhythm drives the ventricles. Patients may be dizzy or collapse and often need pacing.
答案: C · 高碳酸血症性呼吸衰竭,部分由吸氧过量引起
对 CO2 潴留患者不加控制地给氧会加重高碳酸血症和呼吸性酸中毒。应把氧疗滴定到 88–92%,并请医生评估,可能需要无创通气。
答案: D · Put seizure precautions in place and report the result
Hypocalcemia increases neuromuscular excitability and can cause tetany, laryngospasm and seizures. The nurse reports the result, keeps the patient safe with seizure precautions and expects calcium replacement. The other measures fit hypercalcemia.
答案: B · 利尿剂导致钠和钾丢失
噻嗪类利尿剂常引起低钠血症和低钾血症,尤其是在老年人中。护士应报告结果,开医嘱者会复核药物和电解质补充。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: 急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QTc = 0.446 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(446 ms)
答案: 心脏停搏
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
平直线必须核实:查看患者、导联和增益,并换看第二个导联,因为电极脱落或细颤型室颤都可能看起来像心脏停搏。
答案: D · 红色(立即)
在 START 中,呼吸频率超过 30 次/分意味着伤员被标为立即(红色)。30 次或以下则继续进行灌注和意识状态检查。
答案: D · The confused patient climbing out of bed
A confused patient climbing out of bed could fall and be badly injured within moments. Pain needs prompt treatment, but the immediate safety risk comes first.
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