内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient with bronchiectasis of the right lower lobe is taught postural drainage. How should they be positioned?
After a pneumonectomy, how is the patient usually positioned?
Which headache feature most suggests raised intracranial pressure from a brain tumour?
一名带有隧道式中心静脉导管的血液透析患者在透析开始后不久出现发热和寒战。护士应怀疑什么并如何处理?
Which medicine commonly delays wound healing?
An hour after a line flush, a patient receiving parenteral nutrition has rigors and a temperature of 39.1 °C. What should the nurse suspect and do?
A patient with dysphagia after a stroke has been cleared for a modified diet. How should they be positioned for meals?
一名烧伤面积达体表面积 30% 的患者入院。在最初 24 小时内,最令人担心的早期并发症是什么?
How should a patient collect a clean-catch midstream urine sample?
A patient in hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state has a glucose of 1,050 mg/dL (58 mmol/L), very dry mucous membranes and a fast pulse. Which treatment is usually the first priority?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.32,PaCO₂ 38 mmHg (5.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 19 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 34 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
A patient taking lithium has vomiting, diarrhea and a new coarse tremor. What should the nurse do?
An older adult with type 2 diabetes is confused and very dehydrated. The glucose is 900 mg/dL (50 mmol/L), and blood and urine show no significant ketones. What is the most likely problem?
答案: D · With the affected lobe uppermost so gravity drains it
Postural drainage places the patient so the affected segment is above the main bronchus, letting gravity move secretions towards the larger airways to be coughed up. It is combined with breathing techniques. Head-down positions are avoided in patients with reflux, recent surgery or breathlessness.
答案: C · On the back or the operated side, not fully on the remaining lung
After a pneumonectomy, the remaining lung needs room to expand, and the mediastinum must not shift. Patients usually lie on their back or on the operated side, semi-upright. Lying fully on the non-operated side can compress the remaining lung. Chest drains, if present, are managed per surgical instructions.
答案: C · Worse on waking and on coughing, with vomiting
Headaches from raised ICP are often worse on waking, when coughing, sneezing or bending, and may come with vomiting or visual changes. A new headache with these features needs prompt assessment.
答案: B · 导管相关血流感染;停止透析,采集培养并上报
通过中心静脉导管开始透析时出现发热和寒战,强烈提示导管相关血流感染。应按方案停止或调整透析,采集血培养(导管和外周),通知团队并按医嘱开始静脉抗生素。检查出口处。
答案: B · Long-term corticosteroids
Corticosteroids suppress the inflammatory phase, collagen formation and immunity, delaying healing and raising infection risk. Other factors include diabetes, smoking, malnutrition, poor perfusion and chemotherapy.
答案: A · Line infection; escalate and take blood cultures
Fever and rigors after flushing a central line suggest a catheter-related bloodstream infection. The nurse escalates urgently, takes cultures from the line and peripherally per policy, and starts sepsis care.
答案: D · Sitting fully upright, and staying upright for a time after eating
Sitting upright during and after meals reduces the risk of aspiration. The patient should also be supervised and given the consistency recommended by the speech and language therapist.
答案: C · 体液丢失引起的低血容量性休克
大面积烧伤使液体移出循环,因此按公式指导的静脉液体复苏和尿量监测是关键。呼吸道烧伤是另一个早期危险。
答案: B · Clean the area, start voiding into the toilet, then catch the middle part
Cleaning the urethral area and discarding the first part of the stream reduce contamination from skin and urethral bacteria. The inside of the sterile container must not be touched, and the sample should reach the laboratory promptly.
答案: A · Large-volume IV fluid replacement
In HHS the fluid deficit is often very large, so IV fluid replacement is the first priority; it also lowers the glucose. Insulin follows as prescribed, and potassium, sodium and mental status are monitored closely.
答案: 未代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: PaCO₂ = 44.8 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 室性自搏心律
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
室性自搏心律是一种逸搏心律:由于上方的起搏点失灵,心室接管了节律。
答案: A · Hold the next dose and report for an urgent lithium level
Vomiting, diarrhea and a coarse tremor suggest lithium toxicity. The nurse holds the dose and reports so a serum level can be checked; low salt or fluid intake raises lithium levels further.
答案: A · Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state
Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state occurs mainly in type 2 diabetes, with extreme glucose, severe dehydration and little or no ketosis. Treatment starts with IV fluids, as in DKA.
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