内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

A patient is starting long-term amiodarone. Which teaching and monitoring are most important?

  1. AProtect skin from sunlight and have thyroid, liver and lung checks
  2. BEat extra salt and stop the drug as soon as the pulse is regular
  3. CAvoid dairy products and have the INR checked once at the start
  4. DExpect orange urine and no need for blood tests
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

A patient who has had a total laryngectomy becomes breathless and needs oxygen. How should it be given?

  1. AVia a standard face mask over the nose and mouth
  2. BVia a mask or humidified device over the neck stoma
  3. CVia a non-rebreather mask over the mouth only
  4. DVia nasal cannula at 2 L/min
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

A patient takes an SGLT2 inhibitor. Which sick-day advice is correct?

  1. AStop drinking fluids while taking the drug
  2. BPause the drug during illness with vomiting or poor intake
  3. CKeep taking it as normal, whatever the illness
  4. DDouble the dose during illness to control the glucose
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

Which task for a stroke patient can a registered nurse safely delegate to a healthcare assistant (nursing assistant)?

  1. ARepositioning the patient every two hours as set out in the care plan
  2. BAssessing a new weakness the patient reports in the leg
  3. CCarrying out the first bedside water swallow screen after admission
  4. DTeaching the patient how to take a new anticoagulant
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

Which statement about pain relief in acute pancreatitis is correct?

  1. AOnly paracetamol may be given
  2. BOpioids must never be used in pancreatitis
  3. COpioids can be used, and good analgesia is a priority
  4. DPain relief should be withheld until the diagnosis is certain
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

On the day after a Hartmann's procedure, the end colostomy is dark purple to black. What should the nurse do?

  1. AReport it urgently, as the stoma may be necrotic
  2. BRecord it as normal postoperative bruising and recheck it next week
  3. CCut a smaller hole in the pouch
  4. DRub the stoma to improve its colour
7.临床护理中等

A spontaneously breathing patient is critically ill and hypoxic. Which oxygen delivery gives the highest concentration?

  1. ANon-rebreathe mask with reservoir bag at 15 L/min
  2. BNasal cannula at 2 L/min
  3. CVenturi mask set to 24%
  4. DSimple face mask at 5 L/min with the patient sitting up
8.临床护理困难

A patient starting a DOAC is taught about missed doses. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?

  1. A"If I forget a dose, I'll take two the next day to catch up."
  2. B"I will report any blood in my urine."
  3. C"I will tell other doctors and my dentist I take an anticoagulant."
  4. D"I will take it at the same time each day."
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

一名服用呋塞米的患者钾为 2.9 mEq/L。护士预期会出现哪项发现?

  1. A心电图上 T 波高尖
  2. B口周麻刺感,Chvostek 征阳性
  3. C肌肉无力和腿部抽筋
  4. D肠道过度活跃引起的腹泻和腹部绞痛
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

A patient on high-dose dexamethasone has a white cell count of 15 × 10³/µL, mostly mature neutrophils with no bands. They have no fever and no signs of infection. What is the most likely explanation?

  1. AA laboratory error, because steroids always lower the white count
  2. BA new leukemia that is confirmed by this result alone
  3. CCertain sepsis that needs antibiotics started without delay
  4. DA steroid effect that moves neutrophils into the circulating blood
11.动脉血气分析解读中等
pH7.357.457.51PaCO₂mmHg354548HCO₃⁻mmol/L222637未代偿部分代偿完全代偿

某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.51,PaCO₂ 48 mmHg (6.4 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 37 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。

pH 7.51PaCO₂ 48 mmHg (6.4 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 37 mmol/L
  1. 1未代偿
  2. 2部分代偿
  3. 3完全代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读困难
pH7.357.457.30PaCO₂mmHg354575HCO₃⁻mmol/L222636急性慢性慢性基础上的急性

某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.30,PaCO₂ 75 mmHg (10.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 36 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。

pH 7.30PaCO₂ 75 mmHg (10.0 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 36 mmol/L
  1. 1急性
  2. 2慢性
  3. 3慢性基础上的急性
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV二度 II 型房室传导阻滞正常窦性心律窦性心动过缓窦性心律伴窦性停搏

解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
  2. 2正常窦性心律
  3. 3窦性心动过缓
  4. 4窦性心律伴窦性停搏
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV交界性心律心脏停搏室性自搏心律三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞

识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1交界性心律
  2. 2心脏停搏
  3. 3室性自搏心律
  4. 4三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞
15.优先排序与委派中等

A patient reports pain of 8/10. Before giving the prescribed as-needed analgesic, what does the nurse do first?

  1. ATell the patient to wait until the next scheduled dose is due in two hours
  2. BAsk the nursing assistant to reposition the patient
  3. CGive the strongest analgesic on the chart straight away
  4. DAssess the location, character and onset of the pain and the vital signs
16.优先排序与委派困难

A charge nurse notices that a nurse smells of alcohol and is slurring words at the start of the shift. What is the priority?

  1. ARemove the nurse from patient care and report it according to policy
  2. BAsk the nurse to drink coffee and then start work
  3. CLet the nurse work, but only with stable patients
  4. DWait until the end of the shift and then discuss the concern with the nurse privately

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: A · Protect skin from sunlight and have thyroid, liver and lung checks

为什么是这个答案

Amiodarone causes photosensitivity, thyroid dysfunction (it contains iodine), liver toxicity, pulmonary fibrosis and corneal deposits. Patients use high-factor sunscreen and have regular thyroid and liver tests and reviews for cough or breathlessness. It also interacts with warfarin and digoxin.

答案

A · Protect skin from sunlight and have thyroid, liver and lung checks
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: B · Via a mask or humidified device over the neck stoma

为什么是这个答案

A total laryngectomy separates the trachea from the upper airway, so the patient breathes only through the neck stoma. Oxygen and any rescue breaths must be given via the stoma. These patients are "neck breathers" and often carry an alert card.

答案

B · Via a mask or humidified device over the neck stoma
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: B · Pause the drug during illness with vomiting or poor intake

为什么是这个答案

During dehydrating illness, SGLT2 inhibitors increase the risk of DKA, which can occur with only modestly raised glucose, and of acute kidney injury. Patients are taught to pause them until they are eating and drinking normally.

答案

B · Pause the drug during illness with vomiting or poor intake
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: A · Repositioning the patient every two hours as set out in the care plan

为什么是这个答案

Repositioning to a set plan is a routine task that trained assistants can carry out. Swallow screening, assessing new symptoms and medication teaching need the nurse's clinical judgement and stay with the registered nurse.

答案

A · Repositioning the patient every two hours as set out in the care plan
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: C · Opioids can be used, and good analgesia is a priority

为什么是这个答案

Acute pancreatitis is very painful, and opioids are used as part of multimodal analgesia. There is no good evidence that they worsen the condition. Sedation and breathing are monitored.

答案

C · Opioids can be used, and good analgesia is a priority
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: A · Report it urgently, as the stoma may be necrotic

为什么是这个答案

A dark or black stoma suggests poor blood supply and necrosis, which can extend below the skin. The surgical team must assess it urgently, as further surgery may be needed.

答案

A · Report it urgently, as the stoma may be necrotic
7.临床护理

答案: A · Non-rebreathe mask with reservoir bag at 15 L/min

为什么是这个答案

A non-rebreathe mask with a filled reservoir at 15 L/min delivers a high oxygen concentration and is used first in critical illness. The dose is then titrated down to the target saturation.

答案

A · Non-rebreathe mask with reservoir bag at 15 L/min
8.临床护理

答案: A · "If I forget a dose, I'll take two the next day to catch up."

为什么是这个答案

Doubling up on an anticoagulant increases the bleeding risk. Patients follow the specific missed-dose advice for their drug and never take a double dose.

答案

A · "If I forget a dose, I'll take two the next day to catch up."
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: C · 肌肉无力和腿部抽筋

为什么是这个答案

低钾引起肌肉无力、抽筋、肠蠕动减弱(便秘,甚至肠麻痹)和心律失常。T 波高尖见于高钾血症,口周麻刺感提示低钙。核对依据: Heart failure - fluids and diuretics · MedlinePlus (NIH); Low blood potassium · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)

答案

C · 肌肉无力和腿部抽筋
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: D · A steroid effect that moves neutrophils into the circulating blood

为什么是这个答案

Corticosteroids raise the neutrophil count by releasing marginated neutrophils and slowing their exit from the blood, usually without a left shift. The nurse still assesses carefully, because steroids can also hide the usual signs of infection.

答案

D · A steroid effect that moves neutrophils into the circulating blood
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 部分代偿

解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。

逐个指标运用 ROME

pH 7.51: 碱血症(高于 7.45)
PaCO₂ 48 mmHg: 高 (35–45)
HCO₃⁻ 37 mmol/L: 高 (22–26)

代偿

部分代偿

答案

部分代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 慢性

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

急性: 24 + 1·3.5 = 27.5 mmol/L
慢性: 24 + 3.5·3.5 = 36.25 mmol/L

比较

实测: 36 mmol/L → 慢性

答案

慢性
13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 窦性心律伴窦性停搏

节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。 窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。

五个步骤

1. 心率:6 秒内有 6 个 QRS 波群,× 10 = 60 次/分。
2. 节律:规则(R–R 0.88 s),只有一次 2.04 s 的停顿,它不是 P–P 周期的整数倍。
3. P 波:直立,每个 QRS 前都有一个;停顿期间完全没有 P 波。
4. PR 间期:0.14 s,恒定,在 0.12–0.20 s 范围内。
5. QRS:0.08 s,狭窄(低于 0.12 s)。

解读

窦性心律伴窦性停搏

答案

窦性心律伴窦性停搏
14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 室性自搏心律

更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。

五个步骤

1. 心率:R–R = 42 个小格,1500 ÷ 42 ≈ 36 次/分。
2. 节律:规则,每个 R–R 均为 1.68 s。
3. P 波:无法辨认。
4. PR 间期:无法测量。
5. QRS:0.16 s,增宽(0.12 s 或以上)且形态怪异,T 波方向相反。

解读

室性自搏心律

答案

室性自搏心律

室性自搏心律是一种逸搏心律:由于上方的起搏点失灵,心室接管了节律。

15.优先排序与委派

答案: D · Assess the location, character and onset of the pain and the vital signs

为什么是这个答案

Assessment comes first, because severe pain may be a sign of a new complication such as bleeding or a heart attack. The assessment also guides which analgesic is appropriate.

答案

D · Assess the location, character and onset of the pain and the vital signs
16.优先排序与委派

答案: A · Remove the nurse from patient care and report it according to policy

为什么是这个答案

A nurse who appears impaired must not care for patients. The charge nurse removes them from duty and follows policy for reporting; support, such as an assistance program, can follow.

答案

A · Remove the nurse from patient care and report it according to policy

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