内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
为什么吸氧流量低于约 5 L/min 时不应使用简易面罩?
An older inpatient develops sudden fever, muscle aches and a dry cough during the winter influenza season. Which plan is most appropriate?
为什么脊髓损伤后常教患者间歇性自我导尿?
一名老年男性 10 小时未排尿,下腹疼痛,膀胱扫描为 1100 mL。肌酐已升高。最可能的原因和处理是什么?
A patient received IV morphine 20 minutes ago and the surgical consent form has not been signed. What should the nurse do?
一名护士把少量细胞毒性药物洒在地板上。正确的处理方法是什么?
慢性肾病患者的饮食通常需要限制什么?
A postoperative patient on IV fluids has a sodium of 128 mmol/L and is becoming confused. Which fluid could make this worse if given in large amounts?
A patient without symptoms has a fasting plasma glucose of 132 mg/dL (7.3 mmol/L) on Monday and 138 mg/dL (7.7 mmol/L) on Thursday. What does this show?
A patient with severe hypertriglyceridemia has a measured sodium of 128 mEq/L, but a measured serum osmolality is normal, and the patient has no symptoms. What is the most likely explanation?
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 39 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。仅凭这一条心电图条带,你能为哪种解读辩护?点击你的答案。
A nasogastric tube has just been placed for feeding. What must happen before the first feed is given?
A patient with anorexia nervosa is admitted. Which finding is the priority?
答案: A · 呼出的 CO₂ 会积聚在面罩内并被重复吸入
简易面罩需要约 5–10 L/min 的流量才能把呼出的 CO₂ 冲出面罩。流量较低时,患者可能重复吸入 CO₂;低流量时鼻导管更合适。
答案: D · Isolate with droplet precautions, test and expect early antivirals
Influenza spreads mainly by droplets and contact, so the patient is isolated with droplet precautions and tested. Antivirals such as oseltamivir work best if started early, ideally within 48 hours of symptoms, and are recommended for hospitalised and high-risk patients. Vaccination of staff and patients reduces outbreaks.
答案: D · 膀胱可能无法排空,定期排空可保护肾脏
脊髓损伤常引起神经源性膀胱。定期清洁间歇导尿可排空膀胱,防止高压,减少感染和肾损伤,并避免诱发自主神经反射异常。
答案: A · 尿潴留;遵医嘱导尿,并观察是否出现大量利尿
尿潴留(常由前列腺增大引起)可引起肾后性 AKI。治疗是用导尿管解除梗阻。大量尿液引流后,部分患者会出现明显的梗阻后利尿,因此要监测液体平衡、电解质和血压。
答案: C · Tell the surgeon, as the patient may not be able to consent now
Opioids and sedatives can impair understanding, so consent may not be valid. The surgeon is informed; consent is obtained when the patient has capacity, or other legal processes are followed in an emergency.
答案: A · 使用溢出处理包,穿戴个人防护装备,清理后作为细胞毒性废物装袋并上报
细胞毒性药物溢出应使用专用的溢出处理包处理,包括手套、隔离衣、护目装备,必要时戴口罩。应控制溢出范围、吸收并由外向内清理,将废物放入有标签的细胞毒性废物袋,并上报事件。
答案: B · 钾和磷
受损的肾脏难以排出钾和磷,因此常需要饮食限制,同时限制盐,有时还要限制液体和蛋白质。
答案: A · 5% glucose (D5W)
The glucose in 5% glucose is metabolised, leaving free water that dilutes the plasma sodium further. Postoperative patients often have raised ADH, so large volumes of hypotonic fluid can cause dangerous hyponatraemia.
答案: B · The results meet the criteria for diabetes
Two fasting results of 126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) or more confirm diabetes in a person without symptoms. Prediabetes is 100–125 mg/dL. The nurse helps the patient understand the next steps, including education and follow-up.
答案: B · Pseudohyponatremia, an artifact caused by very high lipids
Very high lipids or proteins take up part of the plasma volume, so some laboratory methods report a falsely low sodium. The osmolality and the sodium measured by direct methods are normal. Treating this "hyponatremia" would be harmful.
答案: PaCO₂ = 32 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: PaCO₂ = 48.3 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波时,没有两个下传的 P 波连续出现,所以无法看出在未下传的 P 波之前,PR 间期是逐渐延长(I 型)还是保持恒定(II 型)。仅凭一条心电图条带,只能称为 2:1 房室传导阻滞;更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定类型。QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但两者都不能证明。
QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但只有更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定。
答案: C · Placement is confirmed by an approved method
A newly placed feeding tube can enter the airway without obvious symptoms, so placement is confirmed before anything is given. Methods differ: US practice usually requires an X-ray for a new feeding tube, while UK guidance uses aspirate pH testing (5.5 or below) first, with X-ray if that fails. Air “whoosh” tests and waiting for coughing are not reliable.
答案: A · Heart rate 38/min and potassium 2.8 mEq/L
Severe bradycardia and low potassium can cause fatal arrhythmias. The body-image beliefs and eating behaviors matter, but physiological safety comes first.
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