内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
植入永久起搏器后,最初几周通常会给予哪项指导?
一名患者的胸腔引流管被意外拔出。应立即采取什么措施?
A patient with multiple sclerosis says their symptoms get worse after a hot bath. What should the nurse explain?
一名使用呼吸机的患者有创伤性脑损伤。除非即将发生脑疝,通常的 PaCO₂ 目标是什么?
什么是肿瘤溶解综合征?
A 60 kg adult with 25% TBSA burns arrives 2 hours after the injury, having had no IV fluids. Using the Parkland formula, what hourly rate is needed for the rest of the first 8 hours?
Why must a patient with a new coronary stent not stop their antiplatelet medicines without specialist advice?
Which sign is often a late finding in hypovolaemic shock in a young, previously fit adult?
A patient has a calcium of 11.8 mg/dL (2.95 mmol/L) from bone metastases. Which nursing measure is appropriate?
Which patient should the nurse assess first?
练习数值:Na⁺ 143 mmol/L,葡萄糖 12.1 mmol/L,尿素 13.7 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 32 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
An older patient who has been constipated for days now has small amounts of liquid stool leaking. What should the nurse suspect?
一名新做气管切开的患者咳嗽、呼吸嘈杂,SpO₂ 已降至 86%。首要行动是什么?
答案: D · 避免将该侧手臂抬过肩高
在最初几周内限制装置侧的手臂活动,可降低电极导线移位的风险。还应教导患者观察伤口有无感染、随身携带装置卡,并遵循有关磁铁和某些医学扫描的建议。
答案: A · 用无菌密闭敷料封闭伤口并呼救
应立即用无菌密闭敷料覆盖伤口,以防空气进入胸腔。评估患者有无气胸复发或张力性气胸(呼吸困难加重、饱和度下降、心动过速、气管移位),并通知医疗团队。绝不能重新插入引流管。
答案: D · Heat can briefly worsen MS symptoms, which settle when they cool down
Heat sensitivity (Uhthoff's phenomenon) is common in MS. A rise in body temperature slows conduction in demyelinated nerves and temporarily worsens symptoms. It is not a relapse, and the symptoms settle with cooling.
答案: B · 正常的 PaCO₂(正常碳酸血症)
高 CO₂ 使脑血管扩张并升高颅内压,而过度通气使其收缩,可引起脑缺血。通常以正常碳酸血症(约 4.7–5.3 kPa,即 35–40 mmHg)为目标;仅在出现即将脑疝的征象时短暂过度通气,作为确定性治疗前的过渡。
答案: C · 癌细胞迅速分解引起的代谢急症
肿瘤细胞迅速死亡(通常在急性白血病或高级别淋巴瘤等快速生长的癌症开始治疗后)会释放钾、磷酸盐和核酸(转化为尿酸)。这可引起 AKI 和心律失常。
答案: B · 500 mL/h
Parkland gives 4 × 60 × 25 = 6000 mL in 24 hours, with 3000 mL due in the first 8 hours from the time of injury. With 6 hours left, 3000 ÷ 6 = 500 mL/h. Dividing by 8 (375 mL/h) ignores the delay. The rate is then adjusted to urine output.
答案: A · Stopping early greatly increases the risk of a clot forming in the stent
Dual antiplatelet therapy prevents stent thrombosis while the stent becomes covered by the artery lining. Stopping early can cause a sudden myocardial infarction.
答案: D · A fall in blood pressure
Young adults compensate for blood loss with tachycardia and vasoconstriction, so blood pressure may stay normal until a large volume is lost. Hypotension is therefore a late and serious sign.
答案: B · Encourage fluids and mobility as tolerated
Hydration helps the kidneys excrete calcium and prevents stones, and weight-bearing mobility slows calcium loss from bone. Calcium-containing foods and antacids are not encouraged. The nurse also monitors for confusion, constipation and arrhythmias.核对依据: Hypercalcemia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: B · Chest pain with troponin rising from the first to the second sample
A rising troponin with chest pain indicates acute myocardial injury, possibly infarction, which needs urgent assessment and treatment. High cholesterol is a long-term risk, a falling BNP shows improvement, and a potassium of 3.6 mEq/L is normal.核对依据: Troponin Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023)
答案: Osm = 312 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: PaCO₂ = 43.4 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 室性心动过速
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
答案: A · Fecal impaction with liquid stool passing around it
In fecal impaction, liquid stool from higher in the bowel leaks around the hard mass. Giving an antidiarrheal would make things worse; the nurse assesses and reports.
答案: D · 对气管切开管吸痰
气管切开患者出现呼吸嘈杂、咳嗽和 SpO₂ 下降,提示管内有分泌物。吸痰可清理气道。如果气道仍被堵塞,应遵循气管切开紧急处理流程并呼叫援助。
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