内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How do clopidogrel and ticagrelor work?
A healthcare assistant (unlicensed assistive personnel) reports four observations. Which one needs the nurse's attention first?
A patient with Conn's syndrome starts spironolactone. Which blood test should the nurse watch most closely?
A patient taking amiodarone has gained weight and feels tired and cold. Which blood test is most relevant?
Which advice helps prevent dumping syndrome after gastrectomy?
一名患者上臂有环形全层烧伤。未来数小时内,最重要的评估是什么?
In UK guidance, neutropenic sepsis is commonly defined by a temperature above 38 °C or signs of sepsis with a neutrophil count at or below:
一名接受高流量吸氧的 COPD 患者变得嗜睡,脉搏洪大,皮肤潮红。血气显示 PaCO2 升高、pH 降低。最可能的原因是什么?
A patient had a total gastrectomy. Which long-term therapy is needed to prevent anemia?
A health care worker's hepatitis B tests show: HBsAg negative, anti-HBs positive, anti-HBc positive. What does this mean?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.53,PaCO₂ 21 mmHg (2.8 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 17 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 144,Cl⁻ 90,HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。使用 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) 计算 Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)。保留两位小数。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。仅凭这一条心电图条带,你能为哪种解读辩护?点击你的答案。
A patient with diabetes is unresponsive and has a blood glucose of 40 mg/dL (2.2 mmol/L). What should the nurse do first?
Two days after starting haloperidol, a patient suddenly develops painful neck twisting and the eyes roll upwards. What should the nurse anticipate?
答案: A · They block the platelet ADP (P2Y12) receptor
Clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticagrelor block the P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets, reducing aggregation. With aspirin, they form dual antiplatelet therapy after acute coronary syndromes and stents. Warfarin inhibits vitamin K-dependent factors; dabigatran inhibits thrombin.
答案: B · A patient with heart failure who is newly confused, with SpO₂ 89%
New confusion with hypoxaemia suggests acute deterioration and needs immediate assessment. A COPD patient within their usual target range, a request for tea and an improving DVT are not urgent. Delegated observations must be reported and acted on promptly.
答案: D · Potassium
Spironolactone is an aldosterone antagonist. It retains potassium, so hyperkalaemia can develop, especially with kidney disease or ACE inhibitors. Breast enlargement is another known side effect.
答案: A · Thyroid function tests
Amiodarone is rich in iodine and can cause both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Thyroid function is checked before and during treatment. The symptoms here suggest hypothyroidism.
答案: A · Small, frequent meals low in simple sugars, with fluids between meals
Small meals, fewer simple sugars, more protein and fibre, and taking fluids between rather than with meals slow emptying and reduce fluid shifts. Lying down briefly after meals can also help.
答案: D · 手部的血液循环和感觉
全层焦痂没有弹性。随着水肿的发展,压力升高,可影响循环(胸部烧伤时则影响呼吸)。定期检查脉搏、颜色、毛细血管再充盈、疼痛和感觉,可及早发现这一问题;可能需要焦痂切开术。
答案: C · 0.5 × 109/L
Neutropenic sepsis is defined by a neutrophil count of 0.5 × 109/L or lower with fever or other signs of sepsis. It needs empirical antibiotics within one hour.
答案: C · 高碳酸血症性呼吸衰竭,部分由吸氧过量引起
对 CO2 潴留患者不加控制地给氧会加重高碳酸血症和呼吸性酸中毒。应把氧疗滴定到 88–92%,并请医生评估,可能需要无创通气。
答案: B · Lifelong vitamin B12 replacement
Intrinsic factor from the stomach is needed to absorb vitamin B12 in the ileum. After a total gastrectomy, B12 must be replaced for life, usually by injection, to prevent macrocytic anemia and nerve damage.核对依据: Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency anaemia - Causes · NHS (2023); Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · Past infection that has resolved, with immunity
The vaccine contains only surface antigen, so vaccination produces anti-HBs alone. A positive anti-HBc shows past or current infection; with HBsAg negative and anti-HBs positive, the infection has cleared and the person is immune.核对依据: Hepatitis Testing · MedlinePlus (NIH)
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: Δ 比值 = 3.25
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
高于 2:合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QT = 0.38 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.68 s)。
答案: 2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波时,没有两个下传的 P 波连续出现,所以无法看出在未下传的 P 波之前,PR 间期是逐渐延长(I 型)还是保持恒定(II 型)。仅凭一条心电图条带,只能称为 2:1 房室传导阻滞;更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定类型。QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但两者都不能证明。
QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但只有更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定。
答案: C · Give IV dextrose or glucagon as prescribed
An unconscious patient must not be given anything by mouth because of aspiration risk. IV dextrose or glucagon raises the glucose quickly.
答案: B · An anticholinergic drug, such as benztropine or procyclidine, as prescribed
Acute dystonia is an early extrapyramidal effect of antipsychotics. It responds quickly to an anticholinergic drug; it can be frightening, and laryngeal spasm can threaten the airway.
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