内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient is on a short course of oral prednisolone for an asthma exacerbation. Which effect should the nurse monitor for?
A one-way speaking valve is fitted to a patient's tracheostomy tube while the cuff is still inflated. What is the danger?
一名服用格列齐特(一种磺脲类药物)的患者因低血糖入院。为什么需要延长监测时间?
Why might a frail 88-year-old with type 2 diabetes have a less strict HbA1c target?
Why are urinary catheters removed as early as possible after surgery?
为什么对术后阿片类药物引起呼吸抑制的患者,纳洛酮通常以小剂量重复给予?
Why are patients encouraged to use an incentive spirometer after abdominal surgery?
一名气管切开患者突然无法呼吸,套管似乎堵塞。第一步该做什么?
A patient with type 2 diabetes starts prednisone each morning. When is the glucose most likely to be highest?
一名服用地高辛的患者血药水平为 1.2 ng/mL,钾 2.8 mEq/L,新出现频发室性早搏。最好的解释是什么?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.37,PaCO₂ 18 mmHg (2.4 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.16,PaCO₂ 29 mmHg (3.9 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
这条 II 导联心电图显示传导比例固定的心房扑动。求出心室率(单位:次/分)。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
A patient has a nasogastric tube on suction. Which task can the nurse delegate to a nursing assistant?
A patient has central chest pain that started 30 minutes ago at rest and has not eased with rest or nitroglycerin. What does this suggest?
答案: A · Raised blood glucose
Corticosteroids raise blood glucose, which matters especially in diabetes. Short courses can also cause mood changes, insomnia, indigestion and fluid retention. Long-term use adds osteoporosis, adrenal suppression and infection risk.
答案: A · The patient cannot breathe out and may suffocate
A speaking valve opens on inspiration and closes on expiration, so exhaled air must pass around the tube and up through the larynx. If the cuff is inflated, air cannot escape, causing air trapping and respiratory arrest. The cuff must be fully deflated first.
答案: D · 该药作用持续多个小时,低血糖可能再次出现
磺脲类药物刺激胰腺释放胰岛素,作用持续时间长,在老年人和肾功能受损者中尤其如此。初始治疗后低血糖可能复发,因此需要延长血糖监测时间。
答案: D · To reduce the risk of hypos, falls and confusion
In frail older adults, tight control brings little long-term benefit and a high risk of hypoglycaemia, which can cause falls, fractures and confusion. Targets are individualised to balance safety and quality of life.
答案: D · To reduce the risk of catheter-associated infection
The risk of catheter-associated urinary tract infection increases with duration. Daily review of the need for a catheter, and early removal, reduce infection and help mobilisation.
答案: C · 恢复呼吸,同时不引起剧烈疼痛和戒断反应
大剂量推注可突然逆转镇痛,引起剧烈疼痛、躁动、高血压、肺水肿和心律失常。滴定小剂量可恢复足够的呼吸。因为纳洛酮的作用可能比阿片类药物短,可能需要监测并重复给药或持续输注。
答案: B · To encourage deep breaths that prevent atelectasis and chest infection
Shallow breathing after surgery lets alveoli collapse, causing atelectasis and pneumonia. Deep-breathing exercises with an incentive spirometer help keep the lungs expanded.
答案: D · 取出内套管,检查是否堵塞
按急救流程,首先取出内套管、尝试吸痰并呼救。若无效,下一步包括放气囊和更换套管。
答案: A · In the afternoon and evening
A morning dose of prednisone raises glucose mainly in the afternoon and evening, with a smaller effect overnight. Glucose monitoring and insulin plans often target these times, and doses are adjusted when the steroid is tapered.核对依据: Blood Glucose Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: A · 可能存在中毒,因为低钾会增强地高辛的作用
低钾增加地高辛与心肌细胞的结合,因此在正常水平也可发生中毒。护士应暂停该剂量,报告结果并预期补钾。核对依据: Low blood potassium · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:按温特公式,预期 PaCO₂ 为 21–25 mmHg,所以实测 18 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性碱中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: 合并呼吸性酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 心室率 = 75 bpm
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 节律
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
答案: A · Giving mouth care
Mouth care is routine and important because the patient cannot eat or drink. Checking position, irrigating the tube and assessing drainage need nursing skills and judgement.
答案: B · A possible myocardial infarction that needs urgent action
Chest pain that lasts and is not relieved by rest or nitroglycerin suggests acute coronary syndrome, possibly a heart attack. The nurse acts at once: ECG, escalation and prescribed treatment.
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