内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
关于阿哌沙班和利伐沙班等直接口服抗凝药,下列哪项说法正确?
Four surgical patients need VTE prevention. For which patient is mechanical prophylaxis alone most appropriate?
A patient has acute low back pain with no red flags. Which advice is most appropriate?
A patient who has taken prednisolone daily for years is vomiting and cannot keep tablets down. What should the nurse do?
Why is the "whoosh" test no longer used to check nasogastric tube position?
A worker has a hydrofluoric acid burn on the hand and severe pain. After irrigation with water, which specific treatment is commonly applied?
Which advice should be given to a patient with a new permanent pacemaker?
Why must severe chronic hyponatraemia be corrected slowly?
A patient with chronic kidney disease has a potassium of 5.6 mEq/L. Which food should the nurse advise the patient to limit?
A nursing student has a positive interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) for tuberculosis, no symptoms and a normal chest X-ray. What does this most likely mean?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.42,PaCO₂ 24 mmHg (3.2 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 15 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.23,PaCO₂ 66 mmHg (8.8 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 27 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
After a hip replacement, a patient has sudden severe hip pain, and the operated leg looks shorter and turned. What should the nurse suspect?
A patient with diabetes takes propranolol. Which sign of hypoglycemia is most likely to still appear?
答案: B · 无需常规检测 INR,但剂量取决于肾功能
DOAC 的作用可预测,因此不需要常规的凝血监测。剂量取决于肾功能、体重、年龄和相互作用的药物。由于药效在一两天内消退,漏服很重要。维生素 K 不能逆转其作用;有特异性的逆转剂。
答案: B · A patient who had a brain haemorrhage two days ago
When bleeding risk is high, such as after recent intracranial haemorrhage, mechanical methods (intermittent pneumatic compression) are used instead of anticoagulants until it is safe. The other patients are at high VTE risk and would usually receive pharmacological prophylaxis unless contraindicated.
答案: C · Stay as active as possible and use simple pain relief
Most acute low back pain improves within weeks. Staying active, simple analgesia and gradual return to normal activities help recovery. Imaging is usually not needed without red flags.
答案: A · Escalate urgently for steroid by injection
Patients on long-term steroids depend on them. If tablets cannot be absorbed, they can develop an adrenal crisis. Parenteral hydrocortisone is needed, following sick-day guidance.
答案: C · Air can be heard even when the tube is in the lung
Auscultation of injected air cannot distinguish the stomach from the lungs or oesophagus, and misplaced tubes have caused deaths. pH testing of aspirate or X-ray is used instead.
答案: A · Calcium gluconate gel
Hydrofluoric acid penetrates deeply and binds calcium and magnesium, causing severe pain and possible life-threatening hypocalcaemia. Calcium gluconate gel binds fluoride; serum calcium and heart rhythm are monitored in larger exposures.
答案: B · Tell staff about the pacemaker before any MRI scan or procedure
Patients carry a device card and tell staff before MRI, surgery with diathermy or similar procedures. Arm movement on the pacemaker side is limited only for a short period after insertion.
答案: B · Too-rapid correction can cause osmotic demyelination in the brain
In chronic hyponatraemia brain cells adapt to the low tonicity. A rapid rise in sodium draws water out too fast and can cause osmotic demyelination, so the correction rate is limited and sodium is checked often.
答案: A · Bananas
Bananas, oranges, potatoes, tomatoes, dried fruit and beans are high in potassium. Apples, white rice and cabbage are lower-potassium choices that are commonly allowed on a potassium-restricted diet.
答案: C · Latent TB infection, which is not contagious
A positive IGRA with no symptoms and a normal chest X-ray indicates latent TB infection, which cannot spread to others. Treatment of latent TB is often offered to prevent later active disease. Unlike the skin test, the IGRA is not affected by previous BCG vaccination.
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: 急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心室起搏心律
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。
答案: A · Dislocation of the new hip
Sudden pain with shortening and rotation of the leg suggests prosthetic hip dislocation. The nurse keeps the leg still, checks circulation and informs the surgeon.
答案: A · Sweating
Beta-blockers can hide tachycardia, palpitations and tremor during hypoglycemia. Sweating is mainly cholinergic, so it usually remains, and patients are taught to check glucose when they sweat.
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