内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

How should a patient breathe in when using a dry powder inhaler?

  1. AThrough the nose with the mouthpiece in the mouth
  2. BQuickly and deeply, after breathing out away from the device
  3. CSlowly and gently over about ten seconds
  4. DSeveral times, breathing out into the device between breaths
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

Which method best confirms that an endotracheal tube is in the trachea?

  1. AA sustained waveform on capnography
  2. BMisting inside the tube
  3. CThe patient's skin colour improving
  4. DThe chest rising on one side only
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

A nurse is teaching a patient going home after a mild concussion. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?

  1. A"Someone will stay with me for the first night."
  2. B"I will return if my headache gets steadily worse."
  3. C"I will come back if I start vomiting again and again."
  4. D"A few drinks tonight will help me relax and sleep."
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

At bedtime, a patient was given their rapid-acting insulin by mistake instead of their long-acting insulin. What should the nurse do?

  1. AGive the long-acting dose as well and check glucose at breakfast
  2. BSay nothing, because the patient is asleep and seems fine
  3. CGive glucagon now, before the glucose has fallen
  4. DTell the prescriber and check glucose often overnight
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

Aspirate from a nasogastric tube has a pH of 7. What should the nurse do?

  1. AGive the medicines but not the feed
  2. BDo not use it; re-test later or arrange an X-ray as per policy
  3. CFlush with 50 mL of air and start the feed
  4. DStart the feed slowly and watch the patient closely for coughing
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

Two days after a PEG insertion, a patient reports pain on feeding, and feed is leaking around the site. What should the nurse do?

  1. AContinue feeding and apply a thicker dressing
  2. BIncrease the feed rate to improve nutrition
  3. CStop the feed at once and seek urgent medical advice
  4. DGive the next medicines through the tube as usual
7.临床护理中等

Which of these is a non-drug measure that can help relieve pain?

  1. AKeeping the patient awake all night
  2. BRestricting visitors completely
  3. CTelling the patient that the pain is not real
  4. DRepositioning and distraction
8.临床护理困难

An older patient's blood pressure is 142/80 mmHg lying and 116/72 mmHg after standing for three minutes, and they feel dizzy. What does this show?

  1. AWhite coat hypertension
  2. BPostural hypotension
  3. CHypertensive emergency
  4. DNormal blood pressure variation
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

A patient with hyperkalemia is prescribed an oral potassium binder such as patiromer or sodium zirconium cyclosilicate. How does this drug lower potassium?

  1. AIt protects the heart muscle against high potassium levels
  2. BIt stops the kidneys from absorbing water in the tubules
  3. CIt moves potassium into cells in the next few minutes
  4. DIt binds potassium in the gut so it leaves in the stool
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

A patient on digoxin has a calcium of 12.1 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L) and new nausea and a slow pulse. Why is the calcium result important?

  1. AHigh calcium blocks digoxin, so the drug stops working
  2. BHigh calcium increases the risk of digoxin toxicity
  3. CHigh calcium makes the kidneys clear digoxin faster
  4. DHigh calcium only matters if the potassium is also high
11.动脉血气分析解读中等

练习数值:Na⁺ 151 mmol/L,葡萄糖 27.2 mmol/L,尿素 9.7 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。

Na⁺ 151 mmol/L葡萄糖 27.2 mmol/L尿素 9.7 mmol/L
Osm = mOsm/kg
12.动脉血气分析解读困难
pH7.357.457.23PaCO₂mmHg354581HCO₃⁻mmol/L222633急性慢性慢性基础上的急性

某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.23,PaCO₂ 81 mmHg (10.8 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 33 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。

pH 7.23PaCO₂ 81 mmHg (10.8 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 33 mmol/L
  1. 1急性
  2. 2慢性
  3. 3慢性基础上的急性
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV

在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
QTc = s
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV二度 II 型房室传导阻滞窦性心动过缓2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)

请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。仅凭这一条心电图条带,你能为哪种解读辩护?点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
  2. 2窦性心动过缓
  3. 32:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)
  4. 4二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)
15.优先排序与委派中等

A nurse sees a nursing assistant leave a confused patient’s bed in the highest position after care. What should the nurse do?

  1. ALower the bed now and remind the assistant why it matters
  2. BAsk the family to lower the bed when they next visit
  3. CWrite it in the assistant’s yearly review only
  4. DLeave it because the patient is asleep
16.优先排序与委派困难

A day after a femur fracture, a young patient becomes confused and breathless, with small red spots on the chest. What should the nurse suspect?

  1. AAn allergic reaction to the cast
  2. BFat embolism syndrome
  3. CAlcohol withdrawal
  4. DNormal pain after a fracture

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: B · Quickly and deeply, after breathing out away from the device

为什么是这个答案

Dry powder inhalers have no propellant, so a fast, deep inhalation is needed to disperse the powder. The patient breathes out away from the device first, because moist breath can clump the powder. Very weak or breathless patients may not manage this.

答案

B · Quickly and deeply, after breathing out away from the device
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: A · A sustained waveform on capnography

为什么是这个答案

A sustained exhaled carbon dioxide waveform confirms tracheal placement. Misting and chest movement can be misleading, and skin colour changes late. A chest X-ray shows the depth of the tube but does not prove it is in the trachea.

答案

A · A sustained waveform on capnography
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: D · "A few drinks tonight will help me relax and sleep."

为什么是这个答案

After a head injury, alcohol and sedatives should be avoided because they can mask drowsiness and confusion. A responsible adult should stay with the patient, and worsening headache, repeated vomiting, confusion or drowsiness mean they must return.

答案

D · "A few drinks tonight will help me relax and sleep."
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: D · Tell the prescriber and check glucose often overnight

为什么是这个答案

Rapid-acting insulin without a meal can cause hypoglycaemia. The nurse informs the prescriber, monitors glucose closely, offers carbohydrate, follows advice about the missed basal dose and reports the incident.

答案

D · Tell the prescriber and check glucose often overnight
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: B · Do not use it; re-test later or arrange an X-ray as per policy

为什么是这个答案

A pH above 5.5 may mean the tube is in the lung or oesophagus, or the stomach acid is reduced by drugs or feed. Nothing is given until position is confirmed according to local policy.

答案

B · Do not use it; re-test later or arrange an X-ray as per policy
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: C · Stop the feed at once and seek urgent medical advice

为什么是这个答案

Pain on feeding, external leakage or new bleeding soon after PEG insertion may mean feed is leaking into the peritoneum. Feeding and medicines are stopped immediately and senior review is arranged to exclude peritonitis.

答案

C · Stop the feed at once and seek urgent medical advice
7.临床护理

答案: D · Repositioning and distraction

为什么是这个答案

Positioning, heat or cold where safe, relaxation, distraction and explanation can all reduce pain alongside analgesics.

答案

D · Repositioning and distraction
8.临床护理

答案: B · Postural hypotension

为什么是这个答案

A fall in systolic pressure of 20 mmHg or more (here 26 mmHg) on standing, especially with symptoms, indicates postural hypotension. Causes include medicines, dehydration and autonomic problems.

答案

B · Postural hypotension
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: D · It binds potassium in the gut so it leaves in the stool

为什么是这个答案

Potassium binders exchange potassium in the gut for another ion, so potassium is removed from the body in the stool. They act over hours, so they are not used alone for emergencies; calcium protects the heart, and insulin with glucose shifts potassium into cells quickly.核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)

答案

D · It binds potassium in the gut so it leaves in the stool
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: B · High calcium increases the risk of digoxin toxicity

为什么是这个答案

Hypercalcemia, like hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia, makes the heart more sensitive to digoxin and raises the risk of toxic arrhythmias. Nausea and bradycardia suggest toxicity, so the nurse holds the dose and reports the findings.

答案

B · High calcium increases the risk of digoxin toxicity
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: Osm = 339 mOsm/kg

衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。

计算所得的渗透压

Osm = 2·151 + 27.2 + 9.7 = 338.9 ≈ 339 mOsm/kg

答案

Osm = 339 mOsm/kg
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 慢性基础上的急性

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

急性: 24 + 1·4.1 = 28.1 mmol/L
慢性: 24 + 3.5·4.1 = 38.35 mmol/L

比较

实测: 33 mmol/L → 慢性基础上的急性

答案

慢性基础上的急性
13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: QTc = 0.465 s

QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。

测量

QT = 9 × 0.04 = 0.36 s
RR = 15 × 0.04 = 0.60 s

Bazett 公式

QTc = 0.36/√0.60 = 0.36/0.7746 = 0.465 s

答案

QTc = 0.465 s

超过男性(约 0.45 s)和女性(约 0.46 s)的通常上限:延长。(465 ms)

14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)

2:1 房室传导阻滞:每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波时,没有两个下传的 P 波连续出现,所以无法看出在未下传的 P 波之前,PR 间期是逐渐延长(I 型)还是保持恒定(II 型)。仅凭一条心电图条带,只能称为 2:1 房室传导阻滞;更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定类型。QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但两者都不能证明。

五个步骤

1. 心率:R–R = 44 个小格,1500 ÷ 44 ≈ 34 次/分。
2. 节律:规则,每个 R–R 均为 1.76 s。
3. P 波:直立且规则(P–P 0.88 s,68 次/分),每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波。
4. PR 间期:下传的搏动中恒定为 0.16 s。
5. QRS:0.08 s,狭窄(低于 0.12 s)。

为什么类型无法确定

每隔一个 P 波就不下传,所以没有两个下传的心搏相继出现,PR 间期是否逐渐延长也就无从显现。
2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)

答案

2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)

QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但只有更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定。

15.优先排序与委派

答案: A · Lower the bed now and remind the assistant why it matters

为什么是这个答案

A high bed increases the risk of a serious fall, so the nurse corrects it at once and gives brief, clear feedback. Leaving it or delaying feedback leaves the patient at risk.

答案

A · Lower the bed now and remind the assistant why it matters
16.优先排序与委派

答案: B · Fat embolism syndrome

为什么是这个答案

Fat embolism syndrome usually appears 24–72 hours after a long bone fracture, with breathing problems, confusion and a petechial rash. It needs oxygen and urgent escalation.

答案

B · Fat embolism syndrome

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