内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

Which energy-conservation advice is most useful for a patient with severe COPD?

  1. ADo all the household tasks quickly in the morning to get them done
  2. BAvoid any activity at all, staying in a chair to save their energy
  3. CHold the breath while lifting heavy objects
  4. DSit down for tasks such as washing and dressing, and pace activities
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

Which task for a stable patient with heart failure can the registered nurse most appropriately delegate to a healthcare assistant (unlicensed assistive personnel)?

  1. AAssessing lung sounds for new crackles
  2. BTeaching the patient about a low-salt diet
  3. CMeasuring and recording the morning weight
  4. DDeciding whether to give the furosemide dose
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

A patient taking warfarin is diagnosed with an intracerebral haemorrhage. What is the priority treatment?

  1. ADoubling the warfarin dose to stabilise the INR
  2. BUrgent reversal of the anticoagulant effect
  3. CIV thrombolysis within 4.5 hours
  4. DStarting aspirin to prevent further clots
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

A patient on warfarin starts levothyroxine for hypothyroidism. What should the nurse expect to monitor more closely?

  1. AThe potassium, because it may rise
  2. BThe urine output, because it may stop
  3. CThe INR, because it may rise
  4. DThe blood glucose, because it may fall
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

Why might a patient's platelet count be monitored while they receive heparin?

  1. ATo measure the heparin dose in the blood exactly
  2. BTo check whether the heparin is causing anaemia
  3. CTo see whether the patient has an infection
  4. DTo detect heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

An hour after a line flush, a patient receiving parenteral nutrition has rigors and a temperature of 39.1 °C. What should the nurse suspect and do?

  1. AA normal reaction; give paracetamol and continue the infusion
  2. BLow blood glucose; give a sugary drink
  3. CLine infection; escalate and take blood cultures
  4. DFluid overload; reduce the infusion rate only
7.临床护理中等

A patient with anaphylaxis is hypotensive but has no breathing difficulty. How should they be positioned?

  1. ASitting upright with the legs dangling
  2. BLying flat, with the legs raised
  3. CLying face down
  4. DStanding up and walking around
8.临床护理困难

Which type of drug is commonly used to treat neuropathic pain?

  1. AAntibiotics such as amoxicillin, given as a long course
  2. BProton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole
  3. CSome anticonvulsants or antidepressants, such as gabapentin
  4. DAntihistamines such as cetirizine
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

A patient with an upper gastrointestinal bleed has a BUN of 48 mg/dL (urea 17 mmol/L) and a normal creatinine. What is the most likely explanation?

  1. ADigested blood adds protein, which the liver turns into urea
  2. BThe kidneys have suddenly lost most of their function
  3. CThe liver has stopped making urea because of the bleeding
  4. DSkeletal muscle is breaking down because of the blood loss
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

A patient started methimazole for hyperthyroidism 6 weeks ago and now has a fever and a severe sore throat. Which action is most important?

  1. AAdvise the patient to continue the drug and drink more fluid
  2. BCheck the TSH and double the dose if it is still low
  3. CHold the drug and arrange an urgent white cell and neutrophil count
  4. DGive the next dose and suggest warm salt-water gargles for comfort
11.动脉血气分析解读中等
pH7.357.457.27PaCO₂mmHg354575HCO₃⁻mmol/L222633未代偿部分代偿完全代偿

某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.27,PaCO₂ 75 mmHg (10.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 33 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。

pH 7.27PaCO₂ 75 mmHg (10.0 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 33 mmol/L
  1. 1未代偿
  2. 2部分代偿
  3. 3完全代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读困难
pH7.357.457.23PaCO₂mmHg354564HCO₃⁻mmol/L222626急性慢性慢性基础上的急性

某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.23,PaCO₂ 64 mmHg (8.5 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 26 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。

pH 7.23PaCO₂ 64 mmHg (8.5 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 26 mmol/L
  1. 1急性
  2. 2慢性
  3. 3慢性基础上的急性
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV交界性心律窦性心动过缓心房颤动正常窦性心律

解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1交界性心律
  2. 2窦性心动过缓
  3. 3心房颤动
  4. 4正常窦性心律
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV一度房室传导阻滞二度 II 型房室传导阻滞窦性心动过缓三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞

这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1一度房室传导阻滞
  2. 2二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
  3. 3窦性心动过缓
  4. 4三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞
15.优先排序与委派中等

A nurse teaches a patient to use an incentive spirometer. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?

  1. A“I will use it several times every hour while awake.”
  2. B“I will try to hold my breath for a few seconds at the top.”
  3. C“I will breathe in slowly and deeply through the mouthpiece.”
  4. D“I will blow into it as hard and fast as I can.”
16.优先排序与委派困难

Two hours after a femoral cardiac catheterization, the nurse sees blood spreading from the puncture site. What is the first action?

  1. AAsk the patient to bend the leg at the hip to stop the bleeding
  2. BRemove the dressing and leave the site open to the air
  3. CRaise the head of the bed so the patient can sit up
  4. DApply firm, direct pressure just above the puncture site

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: D · Sit down for tasks such as washing and dressing, and pace activities

为什么是这个答案

Planning and pacing, sitting for tasks, keeping frequently used items within reach and breathing out during effort reduce breathlessness. Complete inactivity worsens deconditioning, so activity is encouraged within limits.

答案

D · Sit down for tasks such as washing and dressing, and pace activities
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: C · Measuring and recording the morning weight

为什么是这个答案

Weighing a stable patient is a routine, measurable task that can be delegated, with the result reported to the nurse. Assessment, patient teaching and clinical decisions about medicines require the registered nurse's judgement and cannot be delegated.

答案

C · Measuring and recording the morning weight
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: B · Urgent reversal of the anticoagulant effect

为什么是这个答案

Anticoagulants make the haematoma expand. Warfarin is reversed urgently, typically with prothrombin complex concentrate and IV vitamin K. Thrombolysis and antiplatelets are contraindicated in a bleed.

答案

B · Urgent reversal of the anticoagulant effect
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: C · The INR, because it may rise

为什么是这个答案

As thyroid function returns to normal, clotting factors are broken down faster, which increases the effect of warfarin. The INR is checked more often and the warfarin dose may need to be reduced.

答案

C · The INR, because it may rise
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: D · To detect heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

为什么是这个答案

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is an immune reaction, usually 5–10 days after starting heparin, that lowers platelets and paradoxically causes thrombosis. Monitoring depends on risk and local policy.

答案

D · To detect heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: C · Line infection; escalate and take blood cultures

为什么是这个答案

Fever and rigors after flushing a central line suggest a catheter-related bloodstream infection. The nurse escalates urgently, takes cultures from the line and peripherally per policy, and starts sepsis care.

答案

C · Line infection; escalate and take blood cultures
7.临床护理

答案: B · Lying flat, with the legs raised

为什么是这个答案

Lying flat with the legs raised supports circulation in anaphylactic shock. Patients with breathing difficulty may prefer to sit up, but should not stand or walk, as this can cause collapse.

答案

B · Lying flat, with the legs raised
8.临床护理

答案: C · Some anticonvulsants or antidepressants, such as gabapentin

为什么是这个答案

Neuropathic pain responds poorly to standard analgesics. Drugs that modify nerve signalling, such as gabapentinoids and some antidepressants, are used, with doses increased gradually.

答案

C · Some anticonvulsants or antidepressants, such as gabapentin
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: A · Digested blood adds protein, which the liver turns into urea

为什么是这个答案

Blood in the upper gut is digested, and the absorbed protein is converted to urea, so the BUN rises out of proportion to the creatinine. Reduced kidney blood flow from volume loss can add to the rise.核对依据: BUN - blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)

答案

A · Digested blood adds protein, which the liver turns into urea
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: C · Hold the drug and arrange an urgent white cell and neutrophil count

为什么是这个答案

Methimazole and propylthiouracil can cause agranulocytosis, often in the first months of therapy. Fever or sore throat must be reported at once; the drug is held and a CBC with differential is checked. Infection is treated urgently if neutrophils are low.

答案

C · Hold the drug and arrange an urgent white cell and neutrophil count
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 部分代偿

解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。

逐个指标运用 ROME

pH 7.27: 酸血症(低于 7.35)
PaCO₂ 75 mmHg: 高 (35–45)
HCO₃⁻ 33 mmol/L: 高 (22–26)

代偿

部分代偿

答案

部分代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 急性

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

急性: 24 + 1·2.4 = 26.4 mmol/L
慢性: 24 + 3.5·2.4 = 32.4 mmol/L

比较

实测: 26 mmol/L → 急性

答案

急性
13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 交界性心律

节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。

五个步骤

1. 心率:R–R = 27 个小格,1500 ÷ 27 ≈ 56 次/分。
2. 节律:规则,每个 R–R 均为 1.08 s。
3. P 波:看不到。
4. PR 间期:无法测量。
5. QRS:0.08 s,狭窄(低于 0.12 s)。

解读

交界性心律

答案

交界性心律
14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 二度 II 型房室传导阻滞

房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。

五个步骤

1. 心率:6 秒内有 4 个 QRS 波群,× 10 = 40 次/分。
2. 节律:P 波规则;R–R 规则,只有一处因缺少 QRS 而出现长暂停。
3. P 波:直立且规则(P–P 0.96 s,63 次/分);每 3 个 P 波中有一个后面没有 QRS。
4. PR 间期:下传的搏动中恒定为 0.20 s。
5. QRS:0.12 s,增宽(0.12 s 或以上)。

解读

二度 II 型房室传导阻滞

答案

二度 II 型房室传导阻滞

II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。

15.优先排序与委派

答案: D · “I will blow into it as hard and fast as I can.”

为什么是这个答案

An incentive spirometer is used by breathing in slowly and deeply, then holding the breath briefly. Blowing into it does not expand the lungs.

答案

D · “I will blow into it as hard and fast as I can.”
16.优先排序与委派

答案: D · Apply firm, direct pressure just above the puncture site

为什么是这个答案

Direct manual pressure just above the puncture site compresses the femoral artery and stops bleeding. The patient keeps the leg straight, and the nurse checks vital signs and distal pulses and informs the provider.

答案

D · Apply firm, direct pressure just above the puncture site

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