内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
After repair of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which regular assessment helps detect a blocked graft or clots in the legs?
After chest trauma, a patient is hypotensive with reduced breath sounds on the left. Which finding suggests a haemothorax rather than a tension pneumothorax?
腹膜透析液使用前应如何加温?
一名颅内压升高的患者需要气管内吸痰。哪种做法最恰当?
How are skin staples usually removed from a healed incision?
一名小肠梗阻患者的鼻胃管每天引流 2 L。哪项护理重点最重要?
Under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (England and Wales), which principle applies?
During a blood transfusion, an older patient with heart failure becomes breathless with a rising blood pressure, raised JVP and crackles in the lungs. What is the most likely cause?
一名患者的左前臂正在输注静脉液体。护士应在何处采集血样?
A patient has a sodium of 150 mEq/L, a glucose of 180 mg/dL and a BUN of 28 mg/dL. Using the formula 2 × Na + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8, what is the calculated serum osmolality?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.43,PaCO₂ 28 mmHg (3.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.15,PaCO₂ 42 mmHg (5.6 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
Which newborn finding needs prompt reporting?
A patient has a wrist restraint. The nurse finds the fingers on that hand pale, cool and tingling. What should the nurse do first?
答案: C · Checking leg pulses, colour, warmth and sensation
After aortic surgery, distal pulses, skin colour, temperature, capillary refill, movement and sensation are checked often and compared with baseline. Loss of pulses, pallor or pain suggests graft occlusion or emboli and must be reported at once. Urine output is also monitored for renal perfusion.
答案: D · Dullness to percussion on the affected side
Blood in the pleural space gives a dull percussion note, whereas air gives hyper-resonance. In haemothorax the neck veins are often flat because of blood loss; in tension pneumothorax they are distended. A massive haemothorax needs a large chest drain, blood replacement and surgical review.
答案: D · 在专用的干热加温器中
将透析液加温至体温可提高舒适度。微波炉加热不均匀,会产生热点;浸泡可能污染接口。应使用制造商认可的干热加温器。
答案: C · 预先给氧,每次吸引时间要短,并限制吸引次数
吸痰通过咳嗽、低氧和高碳酸血症升高颅内压。仅在需要时进行,并预先给氧,每次不超过约 10–15 秒,次数要少,头部保持抬高并居中。有些病房可使用镇静或利多卡因。
答案: B · Alternate staples first, then the rest if the wound holds
Removing alternate staples first allows the nurse to check that the wound edges stay together. If the wound is secure, the rest are removed, and adhesive strips can be applied for support.
答案: B · 准确的液体平衡,配合静脉补充和电解质检查
鼻胃管大量丢失可引起脱水、低钾血症和低氯性代谢性碱中毒。应测量并记录引流量,按医嘱静脉补充(常用含钾晶体液),并至少每天检查尿素、肌酐和电解质。口服液体会增加丢失和呕吐风险。
答案: A · A person must be assumed to have capacity unless it is shown that they lack it
The Act begins by presuming capacity. Capacity is decision-specific and time-specific, and people must be given all practicable help to make their own decision.
答案: B · Transfusion-associated circulatory overload
TACO causes pulmonary oedema with hypertension and raised venous pressure, especially in older people and those with heart or kidney disease. TRALI usually presents with hypotension and no fluid overload signs.
答案: D · 对侧手臂
在正在输液处附近采集的血液会与静脉液体混合,导致葡萄糖偏高或血红蛋白偏低等错误结果。应从另一只手臂采血,如不可能,则按规定处理。
答案: B · About 320 mOsm/kg, which is high
Osmolality = 300 + 10 + 10 = 320 mOsm/kg, above the typical range of about 275–295 mOsm/kg. The high sodium is the main cause, which points to water loss or too little water intake.核对依据: Osmolality blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: 合并呼吸性酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QT = 0.48 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.84 s)。
答案: 室性自搏心律
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
室性自搏心律是一种逸搏心律:由于上方的起搏点失灵,心室接管了节律。
答案: D · Jaundice that appears within the first 24 hours
Jaundice in the first 24 hours is not physiological and may point to hemolysis or infection. Mild jaundice after the first day, milia and acrocyanosis are common, expected findings.
答案: A · Loosen the restraint and assess the circulation
Pale, cool fingers with tingling suggest that the restraint is too tight and blood flow is reduced. The nurse releases it at once, assesses the hand and reviews whether the restraint is still needed.
ExamProblems · examproblems.com/courses/medical-surgical-nursing