内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
After a bronchoscopy with throat anaesthesia, when can the patient eat and drink?
A patient who has had a total laryngectomy becomes breathless and needs oxygen. How should it be given?
卒中静脉溶栓前,通常采用哪个血压限值?
一名老年 2 型糖尿病患者血糖 48 mmol/L,渗透压 365 mOsm/kg,无明显酮体,意识混乱。首要任务是什么?
A patient on enteral feeding develops diarrhoea. What should the nurse review first?
A patient with gallstones has a temperature of 39 °C with rigors, jaundice and right upper abdominal pain. What should the nurse suspect?
Which lifestyle advice helps a patient with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease?
A patient with suspected appendicitis says the pain suddenly eased, but an hour later has pain all over the abdomen, a rigid abdomen and a fever. What is most likely?
慢性肾脏病患者应在何时服用醋酸钙或司维拉姆等磷结合剂?
The nurse teaches a patient about the HbA1c test. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.36,PaCO₂ 24 mmHg (3.2 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 13 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.08,PaCO₂ 28 mmHg (3.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 8 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
Which two patients can most safely share a room?
After a vaginal birth, the uterus is firm and central, but bright red blood keeps trickling steadily. What should the nurse suspect?
答案: A · When the gag and cough reflexes have returned
Local anaesthetic sprayed on the throat abolishes the gag and cough reflexes for a time, so food or fluid could be aspirated. The nurse checks that the reflexes have returned (often after about one to two hours) before giving sips of water and then food.
答案: B · Via a mask or humidified device over the neck stoma
A total laryngectomy separates the trachea from the upper airway, so the patient breathes only through the neck stoma. Oxygen and any rescue breaths must be given via the stoma. These patients are "neck breathers" and often carry an alert card.
答案: D · 低于约 185/110 mmHg
许多指南要求溶栓前血压低于 185/110 mmHg,溶栓后 24 小时内低于 180/105 mmHg,因为血压过高会增加出血性转化的风险。读数更高时应先谨慎降压。
答案: A · 谨慎静脉补液,并密切检查渗透压、血钠和血糖
HHS 首先用静脉补液治疗,单靠补液往往就能降低血糖。渗透压迅速下降有脑水肿风险,所以要逐渐降低。如果有酮体,或补液后血糖不再下降,则以低速率加用胰岛素。由于血栓风险高,VTE 预防很重要。
答案: C · The medicine chart, including laxatives and antibiotics
Diarrhoea on enteral feeds is often caused by drugs such as antibiotics, laxatives and liquid medicines containing sorbitol, or by infection such as C. difficile. The feed is not stopped automatically; the cause is investigated.
答案: C · Ascending cholangitis
Fever, jaundice and right upper quadrant pain suggest infection of an obstructed bile duct. It can rapidly cause sepsis and needs blood cultures, IV antibiotics, fluids and urgent biliary drainage, usually by ERCP.
答案: A · Avoid large meals late in the evening and raise the head of the bed
Smaller meals, not eating close to bedtime, raising the head of the bed, weight loss and stopping smoking reduce reflux. Lying flat after eating makes it worse.
答案: B · The appendix has perforated, causing peritonitis
Perforation may briefly relieve the pain as pressure in the appendix falls, followed by generalised peritonitis. This needs urgent surgical review, IV fluids and antibiotics.
答案: D · 随餐服用
磷结合剂在肠道中起作用,结合食物中的磷酸盐,因此应随餐服用。在两餐之间服用几乎没有效果。
答案: C · "I must not eat anything for 12 hours before the HbA1c test"
HbA1c reflects glucose attached to hemoglobin over about 2–3 months, so fasting is not needed. Lower HbA1c values are linked to fewer microvascular complications, and home glucose monitoring is still useful for day-to-day decisions.
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:按温特公式,预期 PaCO₂ 为 25.5–29.5 mmHg,所以实测 24 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性碱中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: 合并呼吸性酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 心房扑动,3:1 传导
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 双腔(房室)起搏心律
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。
答案: C · Two patients who both have C. difficile infection
Cohorting patients with the same organism is acceptable when single rooms are not available. The other pairs would expose a vulnerable patient to an infection.
答案: B · A tear in the birth canal or cervix
Continuous bright red bleeding with a firm uterus suggests a laceration of the cervix, vagina or perineum. The nurse reports it so it can be found and repaired.
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