感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which adverse effect is a particular risk with NSAIDs such as ibuprofen?
A dehydrated patient is receiving IV fluids. Which finding best shows the treatment is working?
Why is “QD” (once daily) on The Joint Commission’s “Do Not Use” list?
护士发现抽错了药,但在给药前发现了。护士应怎么做?
A patient wants to leave the hospital against medical advice. What should the nurse do?
护士应首先将哪位患者上报给快速反应小组?
A very anxious patient breathes rapidly for a long period. Which change is expected?
Which sign is often a late finding in hypovolaemic shock in a young, previously fit adult?
Two sets of blood cultures are ordered for a patient with suspected sepsis. How are they best collected?
一名糖尿病酮症酸中毒患者在开始胰岛素输注前钾为 3.0 mEq/L。护士应预期什么?
克拉霉素等大环内酯类的作用机制是:
A patient with epilepsy needs pain relief. Why is tramadol used with caution?
How do clopidogrel and ticagrelor work?
A nurse teaches a patient with heart failure who takes ramipril and spironolactone. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
在 DKA 治疗期间,血糖降到约 14 mmol/L(约 250 mg/dL)以下,但酮体仍然升高。通常会怎么处理?
A patient with a subarachnoid haemorrhage develops a low sodium. Why is fluid restriction usually avoided in this patient?
After a spinal anaesthetic, which nursing check is particularly important?
腹部手术后第 6 天,一名患者说咳嗽时有东西“裂开了”,并且伤口处可见肠管。护士应立即做什么?
阴道分娩后约 12 小时,宫底通常位于何处?
A pregnant woman involved in a car crash asks how to wear a seat belt. Which instruction is correct?
A newborn has a cephalohaematoma. What should the nurse monitor closely over the next days?
A 15-year-old in traction for a femur fracture is withdrawn and irritable. Which intervention best fits his developmental stage?
The nurse notices that she is spending much longer with one patient than with the others and feels she is the only one who can help him. What does this most likely indicate?
A patient taking naltrexone for alcohol dependence is brought to the emergency department with a broken leg. Why should the nurse tell the team about the naltrexone?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 8 lb 2 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 21:45 开始,到次日早晨 07:35 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一名体重 36 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 20 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 180 cm,体重 57 kg。医嘱为 75 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
医嘱要求在 8 小时内输入 1500 mL。6 小时后你发现袋中还剩 460 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 07:00 时已输入 100 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 99%吸室内空气,血压 100/60 mmHg,脉搏 92 次/分,无反应,体温 37.6 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 70 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 118 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 70 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
答案: B · Stomach irritation and bleeding
NSAIDs can irritate the stomach lining and cause ulcers and bleeding. They are taken with food, avoided in some patients and may also affect the kidneys.
答案: B · Urine output rises and the heart rate falls towards normal
With effective fluid replacement, perfusion improves: urine output increases, the heart rate settles and the blood pressure stabilises. Watching for fluid overload is also important.
答案: C · It can be misread as QID or QOD, so the drug is given too often or too rarely
“QD” and “QOD” can be confused with each other and with “QID”, leading to serious dosing errors. The word “daily” or “every other day” is written in full instead.
答案: A · 丢弃该药,准备正确的药物,并上报未遂事件
未遂事件暴露了系统的薄弱环节,如包装相似或存放方式不当。上报可以在患者受到伤害之前消除风险。公正文化支持这样的上报。
答案: B · Inform the provider, explain the risks and document the discussion
A competent adult has the right to leave. The nurse informs the provider, makes sure the patient understands the risks and documents it; holding the patient against their will may be false imprisonment.
答案: D · 一名尿路感染患者,新出现意识模糊,呼吸频率 26 次/分,收缩压 94 mmHg
感染患者新出现意识模糊、呼吸频率 22 次/分或以上、收缩压 100 mmHg 或以下(qSOFA 标准),提示可能的脓毒症,恶化风险高。该患者需要紧急上报、培养和早期使用抗生素。NEWS2 等早期预警评分也给出同样的信号。其他患者是稳定的。
答案: D · Respiratory alkalosis from a low PaCO2
Hyperventilation blows off CO2, raising the pH. Symptoms can include tingling of the lips and fingers and lightheadedness.
答案: A · A fall in blood pressure
Young adults compensate for blood loss with tachycardia and vasoconstriction, so blood pressure may stay normal until a large volume is lost. Hypotension is therefore a late and serious sign.
答案: D · From two separate venipuncture sites, using strict aseptic technique
Taking cultures from two separate sites helps distinguish true bacteremia (growth in both sets) from skin contamination (growth in only one). The skin is cleaned carefully, the bottle tops are disinfected, and cultures are taken before antibiotics.
答案: B · 先补钾,按方案等水平安全后再用胰岛素
胰岛素会使钾进一步降低,并可引起危险的心律失常。常见指南是先补钾,并推迟胰岛素,直到水平至少达到约 3.3 mEq/L,同时继续静脉补液。护士应遵循医院方案并监测心电图。核对依据: Ketoacidosis · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023)
答案: D · 与核糖体 50S 亚基结合,抑制蛋白质合成
大环内酯类与细菌核糖体 50S 亚基结合,阻断蛋白质合成。氟喹诺酮类抑制 DNA 旋转酶,β-内酰胺类作用于细胞壁。
答案: A · It lowers the seizure threshold
Tramadol can cause seizures, especially at high doses or with other drugs that lower the seizure threshold. Its serotonergic action also raises the risk of serotonin syndrome.
答案: B · They block the platelet ADP (P2Y12) receptor
Clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticagrelor block the P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets, reducing aggregation. With aspirin, they form dual antiplatelet therapy after acute coronary syndromes and stents. Warfarin inhibits vitamin K-dependent factors; dabigatran inhibits thrombin.
答案: C · "I will use a salt substitute instead of ordinary salt."
Many salt substitutes contain potassium chloride. With an ACE inhibitor and spironolactone, both of which raise potassium, they can cause dangerous hyperkalaemia. Daily weights, reporting rapid weight gain and avoiding NSAIDs (which cause fluid retention) are correct.
答案: A · 在液体中加入葡萄糖;继续使用胰岛素
应持续使用胰岛素,直到酮症酸中毒缓解。为防止血糖下降时发生低血糖,在生理盐水之外加用葡萄糖输注(例如英国方案用 10% 葡萄糖,其他方案用 5% 葡萄糖)。过早停用胰岛素会使酮体再次升高。
答案: D · Low blood volume can worsen vasospasm and brain ischaemia
Hyponatraemia after subarachnoid haemorrhage may come from SIADH or cerebral salt wasting. Restricting fluid can cause hypovolaemia, which makes delayed cerebral ischaemia more likely. Sodium is usually corrected with fluids or salt under specialist advice.
答案: B · Return of leg sensation and movement, and passing urine
The nurse monitors the level of the block, recovery of leg movement and sensation, BP and bladder function. Urinary retention is common, and early mobilisation is only safe once motor function returns.
答案: D · 用生理盐水浸湿的无菌敷料覆盖,屈膝,呼叫外科医生
内脏脱出是外科急症。用无菌、生理盐水浸湿的敷料覆盖脏器,让患者取低半卧位并屈膝以减少张力,保持禁食,监测休克并呼叫外科医生。绝不能试图将脏器还纳。
答案: B · 质硬,居中线,约平脐
宫底在最初 12 小时内上升至约平脐,然后每天下降约 1 cm(一横指)。到约 2 周时,通常在耻骨联合上方已摸不到。
答案: C · Lap belt under the bump, shoulder belt between the breasts
The lap belt should sit low under the abdomen across the hips and thighs, with the shoulder belt across the chest and to the side of the bump. Wearing a seat belt greatly reduces maternal and fetal injury.
答案: A · Jaundice, because the breakdown of the trapped blood adds to bilirubin
A cephalohaematoma is a collection of blood under the periosteum. As the red cells break down, bilirubin rises, so these babies have a higher risk of jaundice. The swelling itself usually resolves over weeks without treatment.
答案: D · Arrange contact with friends and let him control parts of his daily routine
Adolescents are working on identity and independence, and peers are very important. Hospital stay threatens both, so contact with friends, privacy and choices about routines help him cope.
答案: B · Possible boundary problems that she should discuss in supervision
Feeling special or indispensable to one patient, and giving them extra time, are warning signs of over-involvement. Discussing this in clinical supervision helps the nurse keep a therapeutic relationship.
答案: D · Naltrexone blocks opioid analgesics, so pain relief needs to be planned differently
Naltrexone blocks opioid receptors, so usual opioid doses may not work, and attempts to overcome the block with high doses can be dangerous. The team needs to know so that analgesia can be planned safely.
答案: m = 3.69 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: t = 9.83 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 7.2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 126.6 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 21 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:21 滴/分。
答案: Δ = 22.67 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: I = 1070 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 3.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 10:20 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 6
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: DBP = 46 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
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