感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
下列哪个患者目标是按 SMART 原则书写的?
For a healthy adult having planned surgery, until how long before anaesthesia can water usually still be taken?
护理采取空气传播预防的患者后,N95 呼吸器应在何时摘下?
The fire alarm sounds, but the nurse does not know where the fire is. What should the nurse do?
A pregnant nurse is on the unit. Which patient should the charge nurse avoid assigning to her?
A nurse has a needlestick injury from a used needle. What should the nurse do first?
A patient is receiving enteral feeding through a nasogastric tube. How should they be positioned during feeding?
A patient on metformin with reduced kidney function is due a CT scan with IV contrast. Why might metformin be withheld?
When do the blood counts usually reach their lowest point (nadir) after many standard chemotherapy regimens?
A patient's creatinine was 0.9 mg/dL (80 µmol/L) on admission and is 1.3 mg/dL (115 µmol/L) 36 hours later. Using the common KDIGO criteria, what does this show?
Why is directly observed therapy (DOT) often used for tuberculosis?
零级消除(如常规饮酒量时的酒精)意味着:
During an episode of chest pain, a patient's ECG shows new horizontal ST depression. What does this most likely indicate?
一名患者的胸腔引流管被意外拔出。应立即采取什么措施?
A patient with Conn's syndrome starts spironolactone. Which blood test should the nurse watch most closely?
A patient on haemodialysis is on a medical ward. Which task can the registered nurse delegate to a healthcare assistant (nursing assistant)?
Before an anti-TNF biologic such as infliximab is started for Crohn's disease, which screening is essential?
大面积烧伤后第 3 天,患者开始排出大量尿液。护士应预期哪种电解质问题?
Which placental hormone causes insulin resistance in the second half of pregnancy?
一名正在使用硫酸镁的女性的伴侣询问这种药是做什么用的。哪个回答是准确的?
对于有呕吐的轻至中度脱水儿童,应如何给予口服补液盐溶液?
A 6-month-old has just learned to roll over. Which safety advice is most urgent now?
A patient at high risk of suicide is placed on constant (one-to-one) observation. What does this mean?
An 81-year-old woman's memory has slowly worsened over 2 years. She repeats questions and gets lost in familiar places, but she is alert and her attention is normal. Which condition is most likely?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 166 cm。按 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以英寸表示的身高h。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, 2 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 3 fl oz / 果汁。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 7 kg 的儿童按 10 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
你需要用 20%(w/v)储备液配制 1000 mL 0.5%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 8 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 42 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 84 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 17:00 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 100 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 89%吸室内空气,血压 90/54 mmHg,脉搏 58 次/分,清醒,体温 36.4 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: C · 患者将在周五前借助助行架行走 20 米
SMART 目标明确说明期望什么、如何衡量以及在什么时间之前完成。"周五前借助助行架行走 20 米"可以核查;"感觉好一些"则不能。
答案: D · Up to 2 hours before
Standard guidance allows clear fluids up to 2 hours and food up to 6 hours before elective anaesthesia. Long fasting causes thirst, dehydration and discomfort without added safety.
答案: C · 离开房间并关上门之后
因为传染性颗粒仍留在房间的空气中,所以应在房门关闭后到房间外摘下呼吸器,随后进行手卫生。手套、护目装备和隔离衣应先脱下。
答案: D · Close the doors to patient rooms, stay on the unit and wait for instructions
Closing doors limits the spread of smoke and fire. Staff follow the fire plan, keep corridors clear and prepare for evacuation, but do not evacuate until directed or the fire is in their area.
答案: A · A patient with a sealed radioactive implant for cervical cancer
A sealed radioactive implant (brachytherapy) emits radiation, and pregnant staff should not care for these patients. The other patients pose no special risk to a pregnancy.
答案: C · Wash the area with soap and water
The wound is washed with soap and water at once. The nurse then reports the injury immediately so the source patient can be tested and post-exposure treatment considered.
答案: C · With the head of the bed raised to at least 30 degrees
Keeping the head raised to at least 30–45° during feeding and for a period afterwards lowers the risk of aspiration pneumonia.
答案: C · There is a risk of lactic acidosis if kidney function worsens
Iodinated contrast can worsen kidney function, and metformin can then accumulate and cause lactic acidosis. Local policy guides when to stop and restart it.
答案: A · About 7–14 days after treatment
Chemotherapy damages dividing marrow cells, but mature neutrophils and platelets already in the blood survive for a while, so counts usually fall to a nadir about 7–14 days later, depending on the drug. Infection and bleeding risks are highest then.
答案: C · Acute kidney injury, because it rose by at least 0.3 mg/dL within 48 hours
KDIGO defines AKI as a creatinine rise of at least 0.3 mg/dL (26.5 µmol/L) within 48 hours, a rise to 1.5 times baseline within 7 days, or urine output below 0.5 mL/kg/h for 6 hours. A result inside the reference range can still be a significant rise.
答案: B · Treatment lasts months, and missed doses cause resistance
Standard TB treatment usually lasts six months or more with several drugs. Poor adherence leads to relapse and multidrug-resistant TB, so supervised dosing improves completion.
答案: D · 单位时间内消除恒定的量
当代谢酶饱和时,每小时消除固定的量,与浓度无关,因此浓度越高半衰期越长。苯妥英和大剂量阿司匹林也可能如此。
答案: B · Myocardial ischaemia
New horizontal or downsloping ST depression during pain suggests myocardial ischaemia, as in unstable angina or NSTEMI. It should be reported immediately with serial ECGs and troponins. ST depression can also reflect reciprocal change opposite a STEMI.
答案: C · 用无菌密闭敷料封闭伤口并呼救
应立即用无菌密闭敷料覆盖伤口,以防空气进入胸腔。评估患者有无气胸复发或张力性气胸(呼吸困难加重、饱和度下降、心动过速、气管移位),并通知医疗团队。绝不能重新插入引流管。
答案: D · Potassium
Spironolactone is an aldosterone antagonist. It retains potassium, so hyperkalaemia can develop, especially with kidney disease or ACE inhibitors. Breast enlargement is another known side effect.
答案: B · Weighing the patient before they go to dialysis
Weighing a patient is a routine task suitable for a trained assistant. Assessing the access, making medication decisions and teaching require the registered nurse's knowledge and judgement.
答案: C · Screening for tuberculosis
Anti-TNF drugs suppress immunity and can reactivate latent tuberculosis. Patients are screened for TB and hepatitis B before starting and are taught to report signs of infection.
答案: D · 低钾血症,因为液体回到循环中
在最初几小时,细胞破坏和液体转移可使钾升高。约 48–72 小时后,毛细血管完整性改善,液体回到循环,开始利尿,伴钾丢失和低钾血症。全程应监测电解质。
答案: D · Human placental lactogen (hPL)
Human placental lactogen, together with other placental hormones, reduces maternal insulin sensitivity so more glucose is available to the fetus. This is why gestational diabetes usually appears in the second half of pregnancy.
答案: A · 它有助于预防子痫前期引起的抽搐
硫酸镁用于预防和治疗子痫抽搐。它不是有效的降压药,因此重度高血压需要另用药物。
答案: D · 少量、频繁地给予,例如用勺子或注射器
即使有呕吐,通常也能耐受少量频繁的小口饮用。果汁和碳酸饮料含糖过多而盐过少,可能加重腹泻。
答案: D · Never leave her alone on a changing table, bed or sofa
Rolling makes falls from raised surfaces the main immediate risk, so a hand should always stay on the baby on any raised surface. Cupboard locks and kitchen safety become important as she starts to crawl and pull to stand.
答案: C · A staff member stays with the patient at all times, at the distance set by policy, including in the bathroom
Constant observation means a member of staff is always with the patient, at a distance set by policy, so they can intervene immediately. It is reviewed regularly and stepped down as risk reduces.
答案: C · A neurocognitive disorder such as Alzheimer's disease
Gradual, progressive memory loss with impaired daily functioning and normal alertness suggests dementia, most commonly Alzheimer's disease. Delirium is acute and fluctuating with impaired attention.
答案: h = 65.4 in
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 127.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 2.8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V₁ = 25 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 47 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:47 滴/分。
答案: t = 1.2 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 0.56 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 9.4 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 9 h 24 min,所以袋子大约在 02:24 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 6
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 低风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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