感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
In England and Wales, what does it mean if a child under 16 is "Gillick competent"?
A pulse oximeter reads 82% on a patient with cold hands who is talking in full sentences with a normal respiratory rate. What is the best first action?
同一病区有两位姓名非常相似的患者。最佳的安全措施是什么?
在口服药发药过程中,一名患者要求稍后再服一片药。护士把药留在了床头柜上。主要的安全问题是什么?
An Rh-negative mother has just given birth to an Rh-positive baby. What does the nurse expect to give the mother?
Which finding after a laparoscopic cholecystectomy is expected and needs only reassurance and comfort measures?
A patient is having a 12-lead ECG. Where are the chest electrodes placed?
Which task is most appropriate for a registered nurse to delegate to a trained healthcare assistant (unlicensed assistive personnel)?
一名使用肝素输注的患者 aPTT 为 110 秒;方案目标是对照值 30 秒的 1.5–2.5 倍。护士应怎么做?
一名钠为 132 mEq/L、血糖为 600 mg/dL(33.3 mmol/L)的患者入院。为什么要谨慎解读钠的数值?
A child weighing 20 kg is prescribed a drug at 15 mg/kg per dose. What is the dose?
Ten days after chemotherapy, a patient has a temperature of 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) but says she feels fine. What should happen?
Why is intravenous furosemide given slowly rather than as a rapid push of a large dose?
Two days after coronary artery bypass surgery, a patient feels palpitations. The pulse is irregularly irregular at 140/min and BP is 112/70 mmHg. Which rhythm is most likely?
A patient taking sodium valproate becomes tired and is vomiting, and the nurse notices yellowing of the eyes. What is the main concern?
At bedtime, a patient was given their rapid-acting insulin by mistake instead of their long-acting insulin. What should the nurse do?
Which lifestyle change most improves the course of Crohn's disease?
A sacral wound has heavy exudate, and the surrounding skin is white, soft and wrinkled. What should the nurse do?
A woman 4 hours after birth has severe perineal pain and pressure. Her fundus is firm, lochia is normal, and her heart rate is rising. What should the nurse suspect?
A newborn is jaundiced at 12 hours of age. The mother is blood group O, Rh-positive and the baby is group A, Rh-positive with a positive direct Coombs test. What is the most likely cause?
一名呼吸窘迫的儿童出现心动过缓。这意味着什么?
After surgery for a perforated appendix, why is a child often nursed in a semi-upright position?
关于用于焦虑的丁螺环酮,哪项说法是正确的?
Which intervention is most appropriate for an older patient with delirium?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 36.5 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 21:40 开始,到次日早晨 03:50 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
某患者体重 22 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 2 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一名体重 18 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 12.5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 250 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 250 mg,以 15 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 09:00 开始用输液泵以 150 mL/h 输注。到 13:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 61 次/分,血压为 147/96 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 非常受限; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。使用的分级为:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度,13–14 中度,10–12 高,9 或以下极高。点击风险等级。
答案: A · They have enough understanding to consent to a particular treatment themselves
A Gillick-competent young person under 16 has enough maturity and understanding to consent to a specific treatment. Competence is judged for each decision.
答案: D · Check the patient and probe, then warm the hand or move the probe
Cold peripheries, movement and nail varnish can give falsely low readings. The nurse assesses the patient first, then checks the waveform and probe site; a low reading is never ignored until it is explained.
答案: B · 标记姓名相似的情况,并每次都核对两项识别信息
姓名警示系统(如贴纸或标识)可提醒工作人员,严格核对两项识别信息能防止混淆。房间号和名字都不可靠。
答案: C · 护士无法确认患者是否服下,而且别人可能会拿走
除非有商定的自行服药计划,否则不应把药留在床边。护士必须看到患者服药才能正确记录,无人看管的药片可能被其他患者拿走或遗失。
答案: B · Rh immunoglobulin within 72 hours
Rh immunoglobulin given within 72 hours of birth prevents the mother from forming anti-D antibodies, which could harm a future Rh-positive baby.
答案: C · Right shoulder pain from the gas used during surgery
Gas used to inflate the abdomen irritates the diaphragm and causes referred shoulder pain, which settles in a day or two. Jaundice, fever with worsening pain and signs of shock suggest complications.
答案: A · In standard numbered positions across the front and left of the chest
The six chest leads (V1–V6) have standard anatomical positions, from the 4th intercostal space beside the sternum to the mid-axillary line. Wrong placement can change the ECG and lead to misinterpretation.
答案: A · Measuring and recording vital signs on a stable patient
Routine observations on a stable patient are within the role of a trained assistant, with the nurse remaining accountable and reviewing the results. Assessment of new symptoms, IV medicines and initial teaching need registered nurse skills.
答案: B · 遵循肝素方案,检查有无出血并通知医疗人员
110 秒远高于约 45–75 秒的目标,因此出血风险很高。护士应遵循肝素方案,评估有无出血并通知医疗人员。鱼精蛋白是肝素的拮抗剂;维生素 K 逆转华法林。核对依据: Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · 高血糖把水吸入血液,稀释了钠
高血糖把水从细胞吸入血液,使测得的钠降低。随着血糖得到治疗,钠通常会升高。常用的校正方法是,血糖每高于 100 mg/dL 的 100 mg/dL,增加约 1.6–2.4 mEq/L 的钠。核对依据: Sodium blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · 300 mg
20 kg × 15 mg/kg = 300 mg. The result is also checked against the safe dose range and the adult maximum.
答案: C · Urgent cultures and IV broad-spectrum antibiotics without delay
Fever during neutropenia is treated as a medical emergency because infection can progress rapidly. Cultures are taken and empirical IV antibiotics are started promptly, ideally within one hour.
答案: D · Rapid high doses can damage hearing
High plasma levels of loop diuretics can cause tinnitus and hearing loss (ototoxicity), especially with fast injection, renal impairment or other ototoxic drugs such as aminoglycosides. Large IV doses are therefore given slowly.
答案: C · Atrial fibrillation
New atrial fibrillation affects a large proportion of patients in the first days after cardiac surgery, often due to inflammation, electrolyte shifts and stress. Management includes a 12-lead ECG, checking potassium and magnesium, rate or rhythm control and considering anticoagulation.
答案: B · Liver toxicity from valproate
Valproate can cause serious liver injury, especially early in treatment. Jaundice, vomiting, lethargy or abdominal pain need urgent review and liver function tests. Pancreatitis is another rare but serious effect.
答案: A · Tell the prescriber and check glucose often overnight
Rapid-acting insulin without a meal can cause hypoglycaemia. The nurse informs the prescriber, monitors glucose closely, offers carbohydrate, follows advice about the missed basal dose and reports the incident.
答案: D · Stopping smoking
Smoking worsens Crohn's disease, increasing flares, complications and the need for surgery. Stopping smoking is one of the most effective changes a patient can make.
答案: B · Protect the skin edges and use a more absorbent dressing
Maceration shows that exudate is not being managed. A barrier film or cream protects the surrounding skin, and a more absorbent dressing or more frequent changes are used. The cause of high exudate is reviewed.
答案: A · A vulvar or vaginal haematoma
A haematoma causes severe pain and pressure out of proportion to the birth, often with a firm uterus and normal lochia. Signs of hidden blood loss such as tachycardia must be reported.
答案: A · ABO incompatibility
Group O mothers have anti-A and anti-B antibodies that can cross the placenta and haemolyse the red cells of a group A or B baby. Early jaundice with a positive direct Coombs test suggests haemolysis. Both are Rh-positive, so Rh disease is excluded.
答案: D · 严重缺氧以及可能即将发生心脏骤停的征象
儿童缺氧引起的心动过缓是不祥的心脏骤停前征象。需要立即给予气道和呼吸支持并呼叫急救。
答案: D · To help infected fluid collect in the pelvis rather than spread upwards
A semi-upright position helps any infected fluid drain towards the pelvis, where an abscess is easier to manage, rather than tracking under the diaphragm. It also eases breathing and coughing after abdominal surgery.
答案: A · 它需要数周才起效,不适合作为按需使用的药物
丁螺环酮镇静作用小,依赖风险低,但其效果需要数周才能积累。应规律服用,而不是按需服用。
答案: B · Provide orientation cues, make sure glasses and hearing aids are used, and involve the family
Non-drug measures, such as clocks and calendars, sensory aids, a normal sleep-wake cycle, mobility, hydration and familiar people, help while the underlying cause is treated. Restraints and frequent moves worsen delirium.
答案: T = 97.7 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: t = 370 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 11 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 4.5 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 33 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:33 滴/分。
答案: D = 7.5 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: I = 1210 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 325 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: SI = 0.41
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
在通常的 0.5–0.7 之内或之下。
答案: 高风险
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
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