感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient says, "I've never seen this tablet before," as the nurse offers it. What should the nurse do?
In a patient with sepsis, what does a raised blood lactate suggest?
A patient is receiving opioids for pain. Which sign usually comes before opioid-induced respiratory depression?
A newly hired nurse has these hepatitis B results: HBsAg negative, anti-HBs positive, anti-HBc negative. What do they show?
A patient has a serum potassium of 2.9 mEq/L. Which finding should the nurse expect?
A patient on peritoneal dialysis has cloudy fluid draining out and abdominal pain. What does this most likely mean?
HbA1c 测量的是什么?
A patient has a blood pressure of 220/130 mmHg with headache, confusion and visual disturbance. Why is the blood pressure lowered in a controlled way rather than as fast as possible?
A patient with central diabetes insipidus starts desmopressin. Which laboratory result is most important to monitor for an adverse effect?
A patient with acute pancreatitis has a rising BUN, a falling calcium and a glucose of 250 mg/dL (13.9 mmol/L) over the first 48 hours. What do these results suggest?
Which adverse effect of doxorubicin requires monitoring of heart function?
A man taking doxazosin for hypertension starts sildenafil for erectile dysfunction. What is the main risk?
A nurse measures blood pressure on a large upper arm using a cuff that is too small. What effect will this have?
心肌梗死三周后,一名患者出现发热、胸膜性胸痛(前倾时减轻)和心包摩擦音。最可能的诊断是什么?
一名患者卒中后出现同向性偏盲。护士起初应如何帮助?
一名带有隧道式中心静脉导管的血液透析患者在透析开始后不久出现发热和寒战。护士应怀疑什么并如何处理?
For which stoma can colostomy irrigation be considered?
拔除硬膜外导管数小时后,一名使用抗凝药的患者出现背痛和逐渐加重的腿部无力。应怀疑什么?
A woman's cultural practice involves eating only warm foods after birth. How should the nurse respond?
A woman has been breastfeeding for 3 weeks. Her baby has gained little weight, feeds briefly and falls asleep at the breast. What is the most appropriate first action?
Using the 100–50–20 rule, what is the daily maintenance fluid requirement for a 15 kg child?
A child with extensive burns is receiving IV fluid resuscitation. Which finding best shows that fluid replacement is adequate?
What is the main difference between disulfiram and naltrexone in alcohol dependence?
A woman with PTSD after a sexual assault by a man becomes distressed when a male nurse is assigned to her. What is the most appropriate response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 97.7 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液2 tsp,每天两次,共 7 天。混悬液每瓶 150 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
一支肾上腺素预充式注射器标示为 1:10 000(0.1 mg/mL)。医嘱为心脏骤停时 1 mg 静脉注射(IV)。你应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 0.62 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 1000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 6 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋中含有 4 g 药物,溶于 1000 mL。医嘱为每分钟 1 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 07:30 开始用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 13:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 60 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 98 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 60 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
答案: C · Stop and recheck the prescription before giving it
A patient questioning a medicine may be a sign of an error. The nurse holds the dose, checks the prescription and the drug and explains before giving it.
答案: C · The tissues are not getting enough oxygen
When tissues are poorly perfused they switch to anaerobic metabolism and produce lactate. A raised lactate in sepsis signals higher risk and the need for urgent treatment.
答案: A · Increasing sedation
Sedation increases before respiratory depression occurs, so sedation levels are checked regularly along with breathing. A patient who is getting harder to wake needs the opioid held and the prescriber informed.
答案: C · Immunity from hepatitis B vaccination
The vaccine contains surface antigen, so it produces anti-HBs only. A negative anti-HBc shows there has been no natural infection, and a negative HBsAg rules out current infection.
答案: B · Muscle weakness and U waves on the ECG
Hypokalemia causes muscle weakness, cramps and arrhythmias, with flattened T waves and U waves on the ECG. Peaked T waves are a sign of hyperkalemia.
答案: B · Peritonitis, which needs prompt reporting and a fluid sample
Cloudy effluent with abdominal pain is a classic sign of peritonitis, a serious complication of peritoneal dialysis. The nurse reports it and sends a sample as prescribed so antibiotics can start.
答案: C · 大约过去两到三个月的平均血糖
HbA1c 反映红细胞生命周期内血红蛋白的糖化程度,可用来估计长期血糖控制情况。
答案: A · A sudden drop can reduce blood flow to the brain, heart and kidneys
In a hypertensive emergency, autoregulation in vital organs is reset to higher pressures. Lowering BP too fast can cause ischaemia, so it is reduced gradually under close monitoring.
答案: A · Serum sodium, which may fall too low
Desmopressin acts like ADH, so the kidneys retain water. If the patient drinks too much, water retention can cause hyponatremia, which may lead to confusion and seizures. Sodium, weight and fluid balance are monitored.
答案: B · Increasingly severe pancreatitis
Rising BUN (fluid loss and kidney injury), low calcium and hyperglycemia are markers of more severe pancreatitis in scoring systems. The nurse monitors fluid balance, vital signs and organ function closely and reports deterioration.核对依据: Acute pancreatitis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · Cumulative heart muscle damage leading to heart failure
Anthracyclines such as doxorubicin can damage heart muscle, and the risk increases with cumulative dose. Heart function is assessed before and during treatment; the drug can also turn urine red.
答案: D · Symptomatic low blood pressure and fainting
Alpha blockers and PDE5 inhibitors both cause vasodilation, so together they can cause marked hypotension. Patients should be stable on the alpha blocker, and the PDE5 inhibitor is started at a low dose.
答案: D · The reading will be falsely high
A cuff that is too small needs a higher pressure to compress the brachial artery, giving a falsely high reading. A cuff that is too large can give a falsely low reading. The bladder should encircle most of the arm, so cuff size is chosen by arm circumference.
答案: C · 心肌梗死后(Dressler)综合征
Dressler 综合征是心肌梗死数周后发生的免疫介导性心包炎,表现为发热、坐起前倾时缓解的胸膜性疼痛和摩擦音。在再灌注时代现已少见。新的梗死引起的缺血性疼痛不随体位改变,夹层引起放射到背部的撕裂样疼痛。
答案: A · 从看得见的一侧接近,并教其转头扫视
起初,把重要物品放在视力完好的一侧并从该侧接近患者,可提高安全性。随着时间推移,教患者向缺失的视野侧转头扫视。遮盖一只眼没有帮助,因为双眼丢失的是同一半视野。
答案: A · 导管相关血流感染;停止透析,采集培养并上报
通过中心静脉导管开始透析时出现发热和寒战,强烈提示导管相关血流感染。应按方案停止或调整透析,采集血培养(导管和外周),通知团队并按医嘱开始静脉抗生素。检查出口处。
答案: D · An established descending or sigmoid colostomy
Irrigation instils water into a sigmoid or descending colostomy to empty the bowel at set times. It is not used for ileostomies or urostomies and needs specialist teaching.
答案: B · 硬膜外血肿,需要紧急评估和 MRI
使用硬膜外镇痛期间或拔管后,出现运动无力加重、麻木、背痛或膀胱功能障碍,尤其是使用抗凝药时,可能提示硬膜外血肿或脓肿。这是急症:需要紧急麻醉评估和 MRI,必要时手术减压,以防永久性瘫痪。
答案: C · Respect it and offer suitable warm foods
Many cultures have postnatal dietary customs, such as warm foods. When a practice is not harmful, the nurse respects it and adapts care, which builds trust and supports recovery.
答案: A · Observe a full feed to assess latch and milk transfer
Poor weight gain needs assessment of a full feed, including latch, swallowing and duration, and of the baby's health. Support may include more frequent feeds, breast compression and expressed milk, with medical review.
答案: C · 1250 mL per day
First 10 kg: 10 × 100 = 1000 mL. Next 5 kg: 5 × 50 = 250 mL. Total = 1250 mL per day, or about 52 mL per hour.
答案: D · A urine output of about 1 mL/kg per hour
Urine output, usually measured by catheter, is the main guide to fluid resuscitation in burns. In children, an output of about 1 mL/kg/hour suggests adequate perfusion; fluids are adjusted to keep it in the target range.
答案: D · Disulfiram causes an unpleasant reaction to alcohol; naltrexone reduces craving and reward
Disulfiram blocks the breakdown of acetaldehyde, so drinking causes flushing, nausea and palpitations. Naltrexone blocks opioid receptors and reduces the pleasurable effect of alcohol.
答案: A · Assign a female nurse where possible and explain her care plan to her
Trauma-informed care respects the patient's need for safety and control. Where possible, adjusting staffing reduces re-traumatisation and helps build trust.
答案: T = 36.5 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 1
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 10 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 0.62 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: R = 15 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1330 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 725 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 17
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: DBP = 41 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
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