感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
什么时候应该用肥皂和水洗手,而不是使用含酒精的手消毒剂?
A nurse develops vomiting and diarrhoea during a norovirus outbreak. When can they usually return to work (UK guidance)?
对乳胶过敏的患者,下列哪项患者安全措施最恰当?
A patient on airborne precautions for tuberculosis wants to walk in the hallway. What is the best response?
A nurse teaches a patient with heart failure. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名新做气管切开的患者咳嗽、呼吸嘈杂,SpO₂ 已降至 86%。首要行动是什么?
Which advice should be given to a patient with a new permanent pacemaker?
Which route and site are recommended for the first dose of adrenaline (epinephrine) in anaphylaxis on a ward?
A patient takes high-dose biotin supplements for hair and nails. Why should the nurse report this before blood tests?
A patient has fatigue, weight gain and constipation. Results: TSH 24 mIU/L, free T4 low, total cholesterol 285 mg/dL (7.4 mmol/L), sodium 131 mEq/L. What is the best interpretation?
After instilling eye drops, why should the patient press gently on the inner corner of the eye for a minute or two?
一名最近开始服用氟哌啶醇的患者出现高热、"铅管样"肌强直、意识混乱和肌酸激酶极度升高。最可能的诊断是什么?
Why is a raised serum lactate concerning in a patient with shock?
As the defibrillator charges, a nurse sees a colleague still holding the patient's bed rail. What should the nurse do?
Which group of drugs is a well-known cause of SIADH and hyponatraemia, especially in older people?
A student has fever, a severe headache, a spreading non-blanching rash and a BP of 85/50 mmHg. A lumbar puncture is planned. What is the priority?
哪些措施有助于预防高危患者发生肿瘤溶解综合征?
A nurse teaches a patient with a new ileostomy. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A woman at 16 weeks has an amniocentesis. Which instruction after the procedure is correct?
A woman 1 day after a caesarean asks how to hold her baby for breastfeeding without pressure on her wound. Which position is best?
A child is in skin traction for a leg fracture. Which nursing action is correct?
一名法洛四联症的幼儿剧烈哭闹,随后出现严重发绀并变得软弱无力。护士应首先做什么?
Which US legal case is associated with the duty of mental health professionals to protect people who are threatened by a patient?
一名 80 岁的外科患者一夜之间出现意识模糊,注意力波动,并拉扯他的静脉输液管。他入院时定向力良好。最恰当的解释是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 1:45 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 22:50 开始,到次日早晨 08:00 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
某患者体重 22 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 7.5 mg/kg,分 3 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方为 860 单位的药物,药液规格为 1000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 150 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 10 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋中含有 1 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 2 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 10:30 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者自发睁眼,能说成句子但意识模糊,最佳运动反应表现为:把手移到受压部位(定位)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 91%正在补充吸氧,血压 78/46 mmHg,脉搏 110 次/分,清醒,体温 36.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: B · 手上有肉眼可见的污垢或污染时
手上有可见污垢或被体液污染时,需要用肥皂和水洗手。对于看起来干净的手,含酒精的手消毒剂在大多数"五个时刻"中都快速有效。
答案: C · 48 hours after the symptoms have stopped
People can still shed norovirus after symptoms settle, so staff usually stay off work until 48 hours symptom-free. This helps stop outbreaks spreading on wards.
答案: C · 使用无乳胶设备并清楚记录过敏情况
应记录过敏情况,并让患者佩戴过敏腕带。使用无乳胶的手套、导尿管和其他设备,也可以清除房间内的乳胶制品。有粉乳胶手套尤其危险,因为粉末会把蛋白质带入空气中。
答案: A · Explain that they must stay in the room, and offer ways to stay active inside it
Patients on airborne precautions stay in the negative-pressure room with the door closed, leaving only for essential tests while wearing a surgical mask. The nurse explains why and helps the patient cope with confinement.
答案: D · “I add extra salt to my food so it tastes better.”
Salt causes fluid retention and can worsen heart failure. Daily weights, reporting rapid weight gain and taking diuretics in the morning are all correct.
答案: A · 对气管切开管吸痰
气管切开患者出现呼吸嘈杂、咳嗽和 SpO₂ 下降,提示管内有分泌物。吸痰可清理气道。如果气道仍被堵塞,应遵循气管切开紧急处理流程并呼叫援助。
答案: B · Tell staff about the pacemaker before any MRI scan or procedure
Patients carry a device card and tell staff before MRI, surgery with diathermy or similar procedures. Arm movement on the pacemaker side is limited only for a short period after insertion.
答案: B · Intramuscular injection into the anterolateral thigh
IM adrenaline into the outer thigh is absorbed quickly and is the first-line route. IV adrenaline is reserved for experienced specialists with full monitoring because of the risk of arrhythmias.
答案: C · Biotin can distort some immunoassays, such as troponin or TSH
Many immunoassays use biotin-streptavidin binding, and high blood biotin levels can give falsely high or low results, for example a falsely low troponin or abnormal thyroid tests. The laboratory and prescriber should know about biotin use.核对依据: Troponin Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023); Biotin Interference with Troponin Lab Tests - Assays Subject to Biotin Interference · U.S. FDA (2022)
答案: C · Primary hypothyroidism, which can raise lipids and lower sodium
A high TSH with a low free T4 is primary hypothyroidism. Low thyroid hormone reduces LDL clearance, raising cholesterol, and reduces free water excretion, which can cause hyponatremia. These often improve with levothyroxine.核对依据: Hypothyroidism - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Osmolality blood test - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · To reduce drainage into the nose and absorption into blood
Nasolacrimal occlusion keeps the drop in the eye longer and reduces systemic absorption through the nasal mucosa. This matters for drugs such as timolol, which can cause bradycardia or bronchospasm.
答案: B · 神经阻滞剂恶性综合征
神经阻滞剂恶性综合征发生在使用多巴胺拮抗剂之后,在数天内发展,表现为铅管样强直、发热和 CK 升高。5-羟色胺综合征发展更快,以阵挛和反射亢进为特征。
答案: C · It suggests tissues are short of oxygen and using anaerobic metabolism
When tissues are poorly perfused, cells switch to anaerobic metabolism and produce lactate. A raised lactate is a marker of tissue hypoperfusion and severity in sepsis and shock. Repeated measurements show whether treatment is working.
答案: A · Call clearly for everyone to stand clear and check before the shock
Before every shock, the operator states a clear warning, checks that nobody is touching the patient or bed and that oxygen is moved away from the chest. Compressions continue during charging in many protocols, then everyone stands clear for the shock. Touching the bed can conduct current to staff.
答案: C · SSRI antidepressants
SSRIs such as sertraline and citalopram can cause SIADH, particularly in older adults. Carbamazepine, some antipsychotics and some chemotherapy drugs are other causes. Sodium is checked if symptoms appear.
答案: C · Give IV antibiotics at once and start sepsis treatment
Meningococcal septicaemia can kill within hours. Antibiotics must not be delayed for a lumbar puncture or scan. Fluids and other sepsis care are started, and a lumbar puncture is often unsafe in a shocked patient.
答案: D · 静脉水化加别嘌醇或拉布立酶
预防措施包括积极水化以维持高尿量,使用别嘌醇(减少尿酸生成)或拉布立酶(分解尿酸),并密切监测电解质、肾功能和尿量。
答案: C · "I'll drink less so my bag fills more slowly."
Restricting fluids increases dehydration risk with an ileostomy. Patients drink enough, add salt as advised, chew well and report high output or signs of dehydration.
答案: C · Report fever, leaking fluid or bleeding
After amniocentesis, she should report fever, leaking fluid, bleeding, severe cramps or reduced movements. Rh-negative women receive anti-D. Normal activity can usually resume soon.
答案: B · The football (rugby) hold or side-lying
The football hold places the baby along her side, and side-lying avoids any pressure on the abdomen. A pillow over the wound also helps.
答案: D · Keep the weights hanging freely, clear of the bed and floor
The weights must hang freely to keep a steady pull, and the ropes must run smoothly over the pulleys. The nurse checks the skin, circulation and sensation regularly without removing the traction unless allowed.
答案: B · 将孩子置于膝胸卧位,保持其平静并呼叫援助
在缺氧发绀发作(“法洛”发作)时,膝胸卧位可增加体循环阻力和肺血流。安抚孩子,给氧并紧急呼叫援助;可能医嘱使用吗啡等药物。
答案: C · Tarasoff v Regents of the University of California
In Tarasoff (California, 1976), the court held that therapists have a duty to take reasonable steps to protect an identifiable person from a serious threat made by a patient. Similar principles exist in many jurisdictions.
答案: B · 可能是谵妄:寻找潜在的躯体原因并告知团队
急性、波动性的意识模糊提示谵妄,常由感染、疼痛、药物、脱水、尿潴留或缺氧引起。这是医疗急症;应治疗病因,并首先采用非药物措施保证患者的安全。
答案: 01:45
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 550 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 55 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.86 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: R = 30 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 2460 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 9.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 9 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 20:00 输完。
答案: 轻度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
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