感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why should reddened skin over a bony area not be massaged?
Two days after surgery a patient has a temperature of 37.9 °C and reduced breath sounds at the lung bases. What is the most helpful nursing action, alongside reporting it?
Which technique is correct when collecting a wound culture?
A patient with fever and a spreading rash is suspected of having smallpox. Which precautions are needed?
在 START 分诊中,一名不能行走的成人每分钟呼吸 22 次,有桡动脉搏动,能遵从简单指令,但有明显的腿部骨折。该伤员被归入哪一类?
A patient has a heart rate of 38/min, feels dizzy and has a blood pressure of 80/50 mmHg. Which drug is usually given first, as prescribed?
世卫组织三阶梯镇痛原则建议:
A patient with hyperkalaemia is given IV insulin with glucose. What is the purpose, and what must be monitored?
Why must a blue-top (citrate) coagulation tube be filled to the correct level?
手术当晚,一名患者的血红蛋白从 12.5 g/dL 降至 8.1 g/dL(125 降至 81 g/L),心率 118 次/分。最可能的问题是什么?
Which assessment is most important before giving a dose of IV morphine?
某药半衰期为 6 小时,血浆浓度为 80 mg/L。假设为一级消除且不再给药,18 小时后浓度是多少?
A patient with chest pain has a first troponin result within the normal range one hour after the pain started. Why is a repeat test arranged?
An adult inhales a peanut while laughing and now has a persistent cough and wheeze on one side. Where is the peanut most likely to have lodged?
A patient with myasthenia gravis wants to plan a busy day. Which advice fits the disease?
A patient with acute glomerulonephritis has a BP of 190/115 mmHg, a severe headache and blurred vision. Which is the priority?
How should pancreatic enzyme replacement capsules usually be taken?
A patient took a large paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose 6 hours ago and says they feel completely well. Which statement is correct?
卡前列素是一种用于产后出血的前列腺素,应避免用于:
The nurse must deliver a baby before the provider arrives. As the head crowns, what should the nurse do?
Which is the main modifiable risk factor for type 2 diabetes in adolescents?
A 2-year-old has swallowed several of his mother's iron tablets. Why is this treated as an emergency even if he looks well?
A 78-year-old woman who started citalopram two weeks ago is newly confused and drowsy. Which laboratory result would best explain this?
The daughter of a man with moderate dementia says she is exhausted, is not sleeping and feels guilty for getting angry with him. What is the most helpful nursing response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 112.021 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 18:00 开始,到次日早晨 04:45 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
某患者体重 15 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 5 mg/kg,分 3 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一袋输液在 500 mL 中含 40000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 800 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
一袋中含有 2 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 4 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 08:30 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 60 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者呼唤时睁眼,能说成句子但意识模糊,最佳运动反应表现为:把手移到受压部位(定位)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 90%吸室内空气,血压 96/58 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,清醒,体温 36.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: D · Massage can damage the deeper tissues further
Massaging red, pressure-damaged areas can tear small blood vessels and worsen tissue damage. Pressure is relieved by repositioning instead.
答案: A · Encourage deep breathing, coughing and getting out of bed
These signs suggest atelectasis or early chest infection. Deep breathing, coughing, adequate pain relief and mobilisation help re-expand the lungs.
答案: D · Clean the wound with sterile saline first, then swab clean tissue
Old exudate contains surface bacteria that may not be causing the infection. The wound is cleaned with sterile saline and then swabbed over clean, viable tissue, ideally before antibiotics start.
答案: D · Airborne and contact precautions
Smallpox spreads by respiratory particles and by contact with lesions or contaminated items, so airborne and contact precautions are used. Only immunized staff should provide care where possible.
答案: C · 黄色(延迟)
不能行走但通过呼吸、灌注和意识状态检查的伤员为延迟(黄色)。仅有严重损伤并不会使伤员成为立即救治。
答案: C · Atropine
Atropine is the first-line drug for symptomatic bradycardia. Metoprolol, digoxin and diltiazem slow the heart and would make things worse; pacing may be needed if atropine does not work.
答案: C · 随着疼痛加重,从非阿片类药物逐步升级到弱阿片类,再到强阿片类
阶梯从非阿片类药物(如对乙酰氨基酚)到弱阿片类,再到强阿片类,每一阶梯都可加用辅助药物。对于持续性疼痛,首选按时给药。
答案: C · To shift potassium into cells; blood glucose must be monitored for hypoglycaemia
Insulin drives potassium into cells, temporarily lowering serum levels. Glucose is given to prevent hypoglycaemia, but glucose monitoring is still needed for several hours.
答案: B · The blood-to-anticoagulant ratio must be right for accurate clotting times
Citrate tubes contain a set volume of anticoagulant. If the tube is underfilled, the extra citrate falsely prolongs the PT and aPTT, so the laboratory may reject the sample.
答案: A · 出血
下降超过 4 g/dL 并伴心率快,提示持续失血。护士应评估伤口和引流管,监测生命体征并紧急上报。静脉液体造成一定程度的稀释很常见,但不会这么多,也不会伴有心动过速。核对依据: Hemoglobin Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · Respiratory rate and level of sedation
Opioids can cause respiratory depression, which is usually preceded by increasing sedation. Both are checked before and after each dose.
答案: C · 10 mg/L
18 小时是三个半衰期。浓度减半三次:80 → 40 → 20 → 10 mg/L。
答案: A · Troponin may take a few hours to rise after muscle damage
Troponin starts to rise within hours of myocardial injury, so a very early result can be normal. Protocols use serial measurements at set intervals, with the ECG and clinical picture, to diagnose or exclude MI. A rising pattern supports acute injury.
答案: B · The right main bronchus
Inhaled foreign bodies most often enter the right main bronchus and right lower lobe, because the right bronchus is wider, shorter and more vertical. Signs include a unilateral wheeze, reduced breath sounds and recurrent infection. Bronchoscopy is used for removal.
答案: A · Do demanding tasks in the morning or when the drug works best
In myasthenia gravis, muscles tire with use and recover with rest, so weakness is often worse later in the day. Planning demanding tasks for times of peak strength and building in rest helps.
答案: B · Urgent escalation for BP control and close neuro checks
Severe hypertension with headache and visual change suggests hypertensive encephalopathy. This needs urgent medical treatment and neurological monitoring. Seizures can occur.
答案: B · With every meal and snack
Pancreatic enzymes digest fat, protein and carbohydrate, so they are taken with meals and snacks. The dose is adjusted to reduce steatorrhoea and support weight gain.
答案: B · Liver damage may still develop, and appears only days later
Early after paracetamol overdose, patients often have no or few symptoms, but liver injury peaks after about 3–4 days. Treatment with acetylcysteine is guided by timed paracetamol levels and the history.
答案: A · 哮喘患者
卡前列素可引起支气管痉挛,因此哮喘患者应避免使用。高血压患者应避免的子宫收缩剂是甲麦角新碱。
答案: C · Apply gentle pressure to the head to slow the birth
Gentle pressure on the fetal head, with the woman panting, slows birth and reduces perineal tearing and rapid pressure changes in the fetal skull. The nurse then checks for a nuchal cord and supports the baby's body.
答案: C · Obesity with low physical activity
Obesity and inactivity are the main modifiable risk factors for type 2 diabetes in young people. Family history and ethnicity also raise risk but cannot be changed. Healthy eating and activity are the basis of prevention and treatment.
答案: D · Iron poisoning can cause gut bleeding, shock and liver failure hours later
Iron overdose damages the gut lining and disrupts cell metabolism, leading to vomiting, bleeding, shock, acidosis and liver failure, sometimes after a period when the child seems better. Urgent assessment is needed; deferoxamine is used for serious poisoning.
答案: B · A low serum sodium
SSRIs can cause hyponatraemia through SIADH, especially in older adults. Confusion, falls and drowsiness after starting an SSRI should prompt a sodium check.
答案: C · Acknowledge her strain and discuss support such as respite care and carers' groups
Caregiver strain is common and can affect both the carer and the patient. Recognising it, and offering respite, practical support and carers' groups, helps the carer continue safely.
答案: x = 112 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: t = 10.75 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 25 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 10 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1590 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 15:30 输完。
答案: 中度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
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