感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When are non-sterile gloves needed?
Braden 或 Waterlow 量表用于评估:
A patient needs to be moved up in bed and cannot help much. Which approach is safest?
一名护士到达走廊火灾现场,火势正在蔓延,附近房间里有患者。拉响警报后,护士应怎么做?
An anxious patient is breathing very fast and has tingling fingers. The blood gas shows pH 7.51 and PaCO₂ 29 mmHg (3.9 kPa). What should the nurse do first?
A toddler with tetralogy of Fallot becomes very blue and breathless while crying. What should the nurse do first?
A pressure ulcer shows full-thickness tissue loss with exposed bone. Which category (stage) is this?
A nurse notices that a wrong dose of a drug was prepared but was caught before it was given. What should be done?
A patient on warfarin has an INR of 7.8 and a nosebleed. Which medication would the nurse expect the provider to prescribe?
一名酒精使用障碍的患者尽管补钾两天,钾仍为 3.0 mEq/L。镁为 0.9 mEq/L。最恰当的下一步是什么?
Which adverse effect of ciprofloxacin should a patient report at once?
A patient on heparin for 7 days has a platelet count that has fallen by more than half, and a new leg vein thrombosis. What is the most likely cause and the key action?
A patient stops ramipril because of a troublesome dry cough. Which drug class is a common alternative?
After intubation, breath sounds are heard on the right side of the chest but not the left. What is the most likely cause?
A patient with a suspected basal skull fracture needs a gastric tube. Which route is preferred?
一名因颈椎骨折佩戴 halo 背心的患者发生心脏骤停。必须立即备好什么?
Aspirate from a nasogastric tube has a pH of 7. What should the nurse do?
During radiotherapy to the chest, a patient develops pain on swallowing and is eating less. What is the most likely cause and nursing focus?
Which newborn complication is particularly linked to a forceps birth?
胎心监护图显示基线变异消失,并反复出现晚期减速。该图形如何分类,需要怎样处理?
A child with type 1 diabetes has a stomach bug and is eating very little. What is the correct advice about insulin?
A child develops the "slapped cheek" rash of fifth disease. The parent asks whether the child is still infectious. What is the best answer?
A 4-year-old asks when her grandmother, who died last week, will come back. How should the nurse explain this to the parents?
A patient in alcohol withdrawal had a CIWA-Ar score of 8 four hours ago. It is now 22, and he is sweating heavily and very anxious. What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.14642 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 1½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 1½ 杯 / 茶, 3 fl oz / 果汁。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 70 kg,医嘱为单次给药 7.5 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
一名患者身高 158 cm,体重 66 kg。医嘱为 75 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 3 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 42 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 13:30 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 100 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 无损害; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。使用的分级为:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度,13–14 中度,10–12 高,9 或以下极高。点击风险等级。
答案: D · When contact with blood, body fluids or broken skin is expected
Under standard precautions, gloves are worn when exposure to blood or body fluids is likely. Wearing them for all contact gives false security and can spread germs if not changed.
答案: D · 压力性损伤风险
两种量表都用于估计压力性损伤风险,并指导翻身、减压床垫和营养支持等预防措施。
答案: A · Use a friction-reducing sheet with enough staff, with the bed flat if tolerated
Lowering the head of the bed, if the patient tolerates it, and using a slide sheet with two or more staff reduces the force needed. Pulling on arms can injure shoulders, and dragging damages skin.
答案: B · 关闭房门,并将处于危险中的患者水平转移到防火门后
关门可减缓烟和火的蔓延。处于紧急危险中的患者应水平转移到防火门后的安全区域,必要时再进一步疏散。不使用电梯,蔓延中的火应交给消防员处理。
答案: D · Stay with the patient and coach slow, calm breathing
These results show respiratory alkalosis caused by hyperventilation. Calming the patient and coaching slower breathing lets carbon dioxide return to normal; the nurse also looks for physical causes.
答案: D · Place the child in a knee-to-chest position
In a hypercyanotic (“tet”) spell, the knee-chest position raises systemic vascular resistance and sends more blood to the lungs. Oxygen and prescribed medication follow.
答案: A · Category 4
Category 4 involves full-thickness tissue loss with exposed bone, tendon or muscle. Category 3 is full-thickness skin loss without exposed bone or tendon. US (NPIAP) terminology calls these stages rather than categories.
答案: C · Report it as a near miss through the incident reporting system
Near misses are reported so that causes can be studied and systems improved. A just, open culture encourages reporting without blame.
答案: C · Vitamin K (phytonadione)
Warfarin blocks vitamin K–dependent clotting factors, and vitamin K restores their production over hours. For serious bleeding, a prothrombin complex concentrate may also be given to replace factors at once. The warfarin is held.核对依据: Label: WARFARIN SODIUM tablet · DailyMed (NLM/FDA) (2012)
答案: C · 补镁;低镁使肾脏持续丢失钾
低镁使肾脏丢失钾,因此在补镁之前低钾血症无法纠正。两者在酒精使用障碍中都很常见。核对依据: Low blood potassium · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Magnesium Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023)
答案: C · Pain or swelling in a tendon, such as the Achilles tendon
Fluoroquinolones can cause tendinitis and tendon rupture. Patients should stop exercise and report tendon pain promptly.
答案: D · Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia; stop all heparin
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is caused by antibodies against heparin–platelet factor 4 complexes. It usually starts 5–10 days after heparin begins and causes thrombosis, so all heparin is stopped and a non-heparin anticoagulant is used.
答案: C · An angiotensin II receptor blocker such as losartan
Angiotensin receptor blockers (ending in -sartan) block the effects of angiotensin II without inhibiting ACE, so bradykinin does not build up and cough is much less common. They share other effects, such as raising potassium, and ACE inhibitors and ARBs are not normally combined.
答案: D · The tube has entered the right main bronchus
The right main bronchus is more in line with the trachea, so a tube pushed too far usually enters it and only the right lung is ventilated. The tube is withdrawn slightly by the team and position is rechecked. Oesophageal intubation gives no breath sounds and gastric gurgling.
答案: C · Through the mouth (orogastric)
A tube passed through the nose could enter the cranial vault through the fractured skull base. An orogastric route avoids this. Nasal suction and nose blowing are also avoided.
答案: B · 用于打开背心前部以便进行心肺复苏的工具
用于松开背心前部的工具应一直固定在背心上,以便在心肺复苏或气道管理时迅速打开。针孔部位需要定期护理以防感染,并需要教导患者背心下的皮肤护理。
答案: C · Do not use it; re-test later or arrange an X-ray as per policy
A pH above 5.5 may mean the tube is in the lung or oesophagus, or the stomach acid is reduced by drugs or feed. Nothing is given until position is confirmed according to local policy.
答案: B · Radiation oesophagitis; analgesia, soft food and nutrition support
Radiotherapy to the chest can inflame the oesophagus, causing painful swallowing. Analgesia (sometimes before meals), soft moist food, nutritional supplements, dietitian input and monitoring weight are important.
答案: D · Facial nerve palsy
Pressure from forceps blades on the facial nerve can cause temporary facial palsy, with asymmetry when the baby cries. It usually resolves within weeks.
答案: C · Ⅲ类:异常图形,需要及时干预并准备尽快分娩
在三级分类系统中,变异消失并伴有反复的晚期或变异减速,或伴有心动过缓,属于Ⅲ类。应立即开始宫内复苏,呼叫团队,如果图形不能缓解则尽快娩出胎儿。
答案: D · Keep giving insulin, check glucose and ketones more often and follow the sick-day plan
Stress hormones during illness raise blood glucose and the risk of ketoacidosis. Insulin is never stopped; glucose and ketones are checked more often, fluids are encouraged and doses are adjusted according to the sick-day rules.
答案: C · Usually not; the child was most infectious before the rash appeared
In fifth disease the child is most infectious during the mild illness before the rash. By the time the rash appears, the child is usually no longer infectious and does not need to be kept off school.
答案: B · Young children often do not yet see death as permanent, so simple, honest words help
Preschool children often see death as temporary or reversible. Clear, simple language, such as "her body stopped working", and avoiding phrases like "gone to sleep" help the child understand.
答案: C · Give the prescribed symptom-triggered benzodiazepine, increase monitoring and inform the prescriber
A rising CIWA-Ar score shows worsening withdrawal. Symptom-triggered benzodiazepine treatment, closer observation and medical review help prevent seizures and delirium tremens.
答案: x = 0.15 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 477.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 525 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: D = 127.6 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 28 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:28 滴/分。
答案: t = 1.2 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: I = 1060 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.4 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 24 min,所以袋子大约在 17:54 输完。
答案: B = 17
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 无风险
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
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