感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
患者病情恶化时,哪个预警信号往往最先出现?
A toddler is brought in with bruises on both cheeks and the parent's explanation does not fit the injuries. What should the nurse do?
在给一片药之前,患者说:“这片药和我平时吃的不一样。”护士应怎么做?
While preparing a chemotherapy infusion, the drug splashes onto a nurse’s forearm. What should the nurse do first?
When making patient assignments, what should the charge nurse consider first?
Which finding most suggests a tension pneumothorax rather than a simple pneumothorax?
低钠血症患者应特别监测:
一名大手术后的患者血压下降、心率上升,腹部肿胀紧绷,但伤口敷料是干的。你应怀疑什么?
哪个因素最可能使患者的血锂水平升高?
A patient in hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state has a glucose of 1,050 mg/dL (58 mmol/L), very dry mucous membranes and a fast pulse. Which treatment is usually the first priority?
A nurse has a needlestick injury from a patient with HIV. When should post-exposure prophylaxis start?
A patient took a doxycycline tablet with a sip of water just before lying down. Now swallowing is very painful. What is the most likely cause?
Where is the V1 electrode placed for a 12-lead ECG?
一名服用阿哌沙班治疗心房颤动的患者已预约择期手术。下列哪项说法体现了正确做法?
A patient takes an SGLT2 inhibitor. Which sick-day advice is correct?
During a water deprivation test for suspected diabetes insipidus, the patient loses more than 3% of body weight and becomes hypotensive. What should the nurse do?
Which factor can precipitate hepatic encephalopathy in a patient with cirrhosis?
An immobile patient on opioids drinks very little. Which laxative choice is least appropriate?
How does a port-wine stain differ from a "stork bite" (salmon patch)?
Just after the membranes rupture, there is painless vaginal bleeding and the fetal heart rate drops sharply. The mother's vital signs are normal. Which condition is most likely?
在镰状细胞病的血管闭塞性(疼痛)危象的处理中,哪些措施是核心?
一名 6 岁儿童在扁桃体切除术后被开具可待因止痛。护士应怎么做?
How should a nurse screen a patient for intimate partner violence?
护士应首先去看哪位患者?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 39.8 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tbsp,每 8 小时一次,共 5 天。混悬液每瓶 150 mL。按1 tbsp = 15 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
某患者体重 18 kg,医嘱为单次给药 7.5 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
一名体重 14 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 20 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 200 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 1500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 1140 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一组输液以 50 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 300 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 105 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 14:30 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 97%正在补充吸氧,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,清醒,体温 37.7 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: B · 呼吸频率升高
呼吸急促是病情恶化最早、最敏感的信号之一,在 NEWS2 等早期预警评分中权重很高。
答案: C · Document accurately and follow the child safeguarding procedure
Injuries that do not match the explanation are a warning sign. The nurse records facts, not opinions, and refers through safeguarding procedures without confronting the family.
答案: C · 暂停并重新核对医嘱和药物,然后再给药
患者的疑虑是一次安全检查。护士应暂停并核对医嘱、药物、剂量和患者,必要时联系药房。有时原因是品牌不同,但必须先加以确认。
答案: B · Remove contaminated PPE and wash the skin with soap and water at once
Skin exposure to hazardous drugs is washed immediately with soap and water after removing contaminated gloves or gown. The exposure is then reported and treated according to policy.
答案: A · Matching each patient’s needs to staff competence
Assignments are based mainly on patient acuity and needs and on each staff member’s skills and scope. Geography and continuity of care help, but they come after safety.
答案: C · Trachea shifted away from the affected side, with low blood pressure
In tension pneumothorax, trapped air pushes the mediastinum to the other side, reducing venous return and blood pressure. It is life-threatening and needs immediate decompression.
答案: A · 意识混乱、头痛和癫痫发作
低钠使水进入脑细胞,导致恶心、头痛、意识混乱,严重时癫痫发作。必须缓慢纠正,以避免渗透性脱髓鞘。
答案: D · 内出血
休克的血流动力学表现伴腹胀提示腹腔内出血,即使没有可见的失血也是如此。需要外科紧急评估。
答案: A · 脱水或钠摄入突然减少
当身体缺钠或缺水时,肾脏保留更多的钠,同时也保留锂,因此血锂水平升高。非甾体抗炎药、噻嗪类利尿剂和 ACE 抑制剂也可升高血锂水平。
答案: D · Large-volume IV fluid replacement
In HHS the fluid deficit is often very large, so IV fluid replacement is the first priority; it also lowers the glucose. Insulin follows as prescribed, and potassium, sodium and mental status are monitored closely.核对依据: Diabetic hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: B · As soon as possible, and within 72 hours at the latest
Post-exposure prophylaxis aims to stop infection becoming established. It works best when started within hours, is not started after 72 hours, and is usually taken for 28 days.
答案: A · Pill-induced oesophagitis
Doxycycline can cause oesophageal ulceration if it stays in the oesophagus. It is taken with a full glass of water while upright, and the patient stays upright for at least 30 minutes.
答案: B · The fourth intercostal space just right of the sternum
V1 is placed in the fourth intercostal space at the right sternal edge, and V2 at the left sternal edge. V4 is in the fifth intercostal space in the mid-clavicular line, and V6 in the mid-axillary line at the same level. Wrong placement can mimic or hide changes.
答案: C · 根据出血风险和肾功能,暂停用药一段设定的时间
由于 DOAC 在数天内失效,通常根据手术的出血风险和肾功能,在术前暂停一段规定的时间(常为 1–3 天);一般不需要肝素桥接。维生素 K 不能逆转 DOAC。
答案: A · Pause the drug during illness with vomiting or poor intake
During dehydrating illness, SGLT2 inhibitors increase the risk of DKA, which can occur with only modestly raised glucose, and of acute kidney injury. Patients are taught to pause them until they are eating and drinking normally.
答案: B · Stop the test and inform the doctor
In DI, the patient keeps passing dilute urine despite fluid restriction and can become dangerously dehydrated. Significant weight loss, hypotension or a high sodium are reasons to stop the test and get medical review.
答案: C · Constipation
Constipation, GI bleeding, infection, dehydration, low potassium and sedative drugs can trigger encephalopathy. Keeping the bowels open, for example with lactulose, reduces ammonia absorption.
答案: B · A bulk-forming laxative used on its own
Bulk-forming laxatives need good fluid intake and mobility and can worsen constipation or cause obstruction without them. They do not counter the effect of opioids on gut movement, so stimulant or osmotic laxatives are preferred.
答案: A · A port-wine stain does not fade with time
Stork bites on the neck or eyelids are flat pink capillary marks that usually fade. A port-wine stain is a permanent vascular malformation; on the face it may be linked with Sturge–Weber syndrome.
答案: B · Ruptured vasa praevia
Rupture of the membranes can tear unprotected fetal vessels in vasa praevia. Fetal blood loss causes rapid bradycardia while the mother stays stable. An emergency caesarean is needed.
答案: D · 补液、有效镇痛,以及孩子缺氧时给氧
补液、及时镇痛(常用阿片类药物)、保暖,以及血氧饱和度低时给氧是关键。寒冷引起血管收缩,可能加重镰变。
答案: C · 给药前向开医嘱者质疑该医嘱
12 岁以下儿童,以及 18 岁以下儿童在扁桃体或腺样体切除术后,禁用可待因,因为超快代谢者会发生致命的呼吸抑制。护士应对该医嘱提出质疑。
答案: B · Ask in private, without the partner or family present
Screening should be done privately, using direct, non-judgemental questions. Abuse occurs in all groups, so routine screening is better than asking only those with obvious injuries.
答案: B · 一名新入院的患者,说声音在告诉他从窗户跳出去
要求自伤的命令性幻听提示即时的安全风险。细微震颤是锂盐常见的副作用,其他要求可以稍候。
答案: T = 103.6 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 1
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 135 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 7 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 285 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: t = 1.5 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 0.95 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 19:10 输完。
答案: MFS = 90
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
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