感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should dentures be cleaned to avoid breaking them?
According to current European (ERC) and 2025 American Heart Association guidelines, what is the first action for a conscious adult who is choking and cannot cough effectively?
In the US (EPA/OSHA) hazmat system, which level of PPE gives the highest level of protection?
一名护士正准备给予静脉吗啡。患者的呼吸频率为 9 次/分,非常嗜睡。护士应怎么做?
护士看到一名护理助理用明显太小的袖带测量血压。护士应怎么做?
A patient at 34 weeks of pregnancy has painless, bright red vaginal bleeding. Which action should the nurse avoid?
In suspected sepsis, what should ideally be collected before the first dose of antibiotics, as long as it does not delay treatment?
一名 T4 平面脊髓损伤患者突然出现剧烈搏动性头痛、血压极高以及损伤平面以上出汗。首要措施是什么?
为什么肝衰竭患者即使没有服用华法林,INR 也可能升高?
手术后,一名接受大量低渗静脉液体的患者出现头痛、恶心和意识模糊。哪项结果最能解释这一点?
Benzathine benzylpenicillin (penicillin G benzathine) is ordered. Which route is correct?
A pregnant woman develops a deep vein thrombosis. Which anticoagulant is usually preferred?
A patient on theophylline develops nausea, vomiting, a fast heart rate and restlessness. What should the nurse suspect?
A patient on three blood pressure drugs still has high readings at every visit. What should the nurse check first?
Which headache feature most suggests raised intracranial pressure from a brain tumour?
A patient with type 1 diabetes has a seizure on the ward. Their capillary glucose is 1.9 mmol/L (34 mg/dL). They cannot swallow. What is the most appropriate treatment?
Which statement about fatigue during radiotherapy is correct?
A 62-year-old with known reflux reports burning central chest pain with sweating and breathlessness that began while walking. What should the nurse do first?
A woman at 26 weeks asks which symptom she should report straight away. Which one is a danger sign?
A woman at 29 weeks is in preterm labour and is given magnesium sulfate. What is the main reason for giving it at this gestation?
A 3-day-old has a red, swollen eyelid with a heavy discharge of pus. What should the nurse do?
Only one negative-pressure room is available. Which child should be placed in it?
What is the PHQ-9 used for?
哪项发现最有助于区分 5-羟色胺综合征与抗精神病药恶性综合征?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.18162 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 23:05 开始,到次日早晨 07:50 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一个药瓶中含有 2 g 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 7.4 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 8 mL。医嘱为 750 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 125 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
滴注以 50 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 4 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一组输液以 40 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 450 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 15:30 开始以 75 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 150 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 无损害; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: B · Over a sink lined with a towel or partly filled with water
Cleaning over a padded or water-filled sink cushions a fall. Hot water can warp dentures, and abrasives scratch them; they are stored in a labelled denture pot.
答案: A · Give up to 5 back blows
For severe airway obstruction in a conscious adult, give up to 5 back blows, then up to 5 abdominal thrusts if needed, and repeat. Older US teaching started with abdominal thrusts alone. If they become unresponsive, start CPR.
答案: D · Level A
Level A is a fully encapsulating, vapor-tight suit with self-contained breathing apparatus, used for unknown or highly toxic agents. Level D is ordinary work clothing with minimal protection.
答案: D · 暂停给药,评估患者并通知开医嘱者
呼吸减慢和镇静提示阿片类药物过量,再给一剂可能导致呼吸停止。护士应暂停给药,刺激并评估患者,按医嘱准备纳洛酮并上报升级。
答案: A · 立即介入,委婉地纠正操作,并重新测量
监督包括立即以尊重的方式纠正错误,并获得准确的数值。过小的袖带会高估血压。忽略或等上几个月都会让伤害持续存在。
答案: A · A vaginal examination
Painless, bright red bleeding suggests placenta previa. A vaginal examination could cause severe hemorrhage, so it is avoided until the placenta position is known.
答案: C · Blood cultures
Blood cultures taken before antibiotics are more likely to grow the organism, which allows targeted treatment later. Antibiotics should still be given promptly and must not be delayed.
答案: A · 让患者坐起,检查是否膀胱充盈或导尿管堵塞
自主神经反射异常发生于 T6 及以上平面的损伤。坐起可降低血压,并且必须迅速去除诱因,最常见的是膀胱膨胀或便秘。
答案: A · 肝脏合成大多数凝血因子,因此合成减少
肝脏合成大多数凝血因子,包括依赖维生素 K 的因子。在严重肝病中,它们的合成减少,因此 INR 升高。INR 升高是反映肝衰竭严重程度的指标之一。核对依据: Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · 钠 126 mEq/L
手术应激使抗利尿激素升高,低渗液体增加自由水,因此钠下降。低钠血症引起头痛、恶心和意识模糊。其他数值是正常的。核对依据: Low blood sodium · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Hyponatremia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf)
答案: C · Deep intramuscular only
Benzathine penicillin is a depot suspension given deep IM. Accidental intravenous injection can cause cardiorespiratory arrest and death.
答案: A · Low-molecular-weight heparin, such as enoxaparin
Heparins are large molecules that do not cross the placenta. Warfarin is teratogenic, and direct oral anticoagulants are not recommended in pregnancy.
答案: D · Theophylline toxicity
Theophylline has a narrow therapeutic window. Toxicity causes nausea, vomiting, tachycardia, arrhythmias, agitation and seizures. Levels are monitored, and many drugs and smoking status change its clearance. The nurse should hold the dose and report.
答案: D · Whether the patient is taking the medicines as prescribed
Before labelling hypertension as resistant, adherence, measurement technique, white-coat effect and interacting substances (NSAIDs, decongestants, alcohol, liquorice) should be checked. Side effects, cost and complex regimens are common reasons for missed doses.
答案: C · Worse on waking and on coughing, with vomiting
Headaches from raised ICP are often worse on waking, when coughing, sneezing or bending, and may come with vomiting or visual changes. A new headache with these features needs prompt assessment.
答案: A · IV glucose or IM glucagon, then recheck the glucose
Severe hypoglycaemia can cause seizures. A patient who cannot swallow needs IV glucose, or IM glucagon if there is no IV access. Nothing should be put in the mouth of a fitting or unconscious patient. Glucose is rechecked and a long-acting carbohydrate is given when safe.
答案: A · It often builds during the course and can last for weeks
Radiotherapy fatigue usually increases as treatment continues and may persist for weeks or months afterwards. Pacing, light exercise and good sleep and nutrition help.
答案: C · Record a 12-lead ECG and escalate as possible cardiac pain
Cardiac pain can feel like heartburn. Exertional pain with sweating and breathlessness must be treated as possible acute coronary syndrome until excluded, so an ECG and urgent review come first.
答案: B · Sudden swelling of the face and hands with a headache
Sudden facial or hand swelling, severe headache, visual changes and upper abdominal pain can signal pre-eclampsia. Mild ankle oedema, white discharge and heartburn are common discomforts.
答案: B · To reduce the baby's risk of cerebral palsy
Before about 32 weeks, magnesium sulfate given when preterm birth is imminent reduces the risk of cerebral palsy. It is a neuroprotective use, separate from seizure prevention in pre-eclampsia.
答案: C · Arrange prompt medical review, as infection from the birth canal is possible
Neonatal conjunctivitis with heavy pus and swelling may be caused by gonococcus or chlamydia acquired during birth. Gonococcal infection can damage the cornea rapidly, so swabs and prompt treatment are needed, and the parents are tested and treated too.
答案: B · A child with suspected measles
Negative-pressure rooms are for airborne infections such as measles, chickenpox and tuberculosis. RSV mainly needs contact (and often droplet) precautions, impetigo contact precautions and norovirus contact precautions with strict hand hygiene.
答案: A · Screening for depression and measuring its severity
The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 asks how often each of the nine depression symptoms has occurred in the last 2 weeks. Item 9 asks about thoughts of self-harm, which always needs follow-up.
答案: C · 起病迅速的反射亢进和阵挛提示 5-羟色胺综合征
两者都可引起发热、意识模糊和自主神经不稳。5-羟色胺综合征在数小时内起病,引起神经肌肉兴奋(反射亢进、阵挛)。抗精神病药恶性综合征在数日内发展,表现为“铅管样”强直和反射减弱。
答案: x = 0.18 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: t = 8.75 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 3 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: V = 1.6 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 600 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 3.8 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: I = 1460 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 19:50 输完。
答案: B = 14
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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