感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
外周静脉留置针沿线皮肤发红、疼痛和肿胀。恰当的处理是什么?
A patient with heart failure weighs 2 kg more than yesterday on the same scales. What does this most likely show?
Why should a child’s weight be recorded only in kilograms?
给一名有窒息风险的清醒患者口服药物。哪种做法最安全?
When making patient assignments, what should the charge nurse consider first?
护士应首先关注哪位患者?
Why can a very low serum albumin contribute to oedema?
A patient is taught to self-inject low-molecular-weight heparin. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient taking a statin reports new, unexplained muscle pain and weakness. Which laboratory test would the nurse expect to be ordered?
A patient receiving IV magnesium sulfate has a respiratory rate of 9/min and absent patellar reflexes. After stopping the infusion, which medication should the nurse expect to give?
How many micrograms are in 0.5 mg?
A patient on warfarin also takes ginkgo and high-dose garlic supplements and is having minor surgery next week. What should the nurse do?
A patient taking simvastatin drinks a large glass of grapefruit juice every morning. Why is this a concern?
Why is the cuff pressure of an endotracheal or tracheostomy tube checked regularly?
急性肾损伤(KDIGO)的哪项标准与尿量有关?
Which patient with a spinal cord injury is at risk of autonomic dysreflexia?
Which statement about corticosteroids in inflammatory bowel disease is correct?
A nurse teaches a patient about a fentanyl skin patch. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A newborn at 42 weeks has dry, cracked, peeling skin, long nails and little vernix. How is this baby best described?
A woman at 8 weeks takes valproate for epilepsy. She asks whether she should stop it. Which response is best?
Which injury in an infant is most suggestive of physical abuse?
A large baby born to a mother with diabetes becomes jittery at 1 hour of age. What should the nurse check first?
A patient who has started chlorpromazine feels dizzy when she gets out of bed. What should the nurse teach her?
A patient who takes fluoxetine in the evening says he has had trouble falling asleep since starting it. What should the nurse suggest?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 3:50 PM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次维持输液以 100 mL/h 的速度不间断运行。24 小时内输注多少升V?
一名体重 17 kg 的儿童按 2 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名体重 28 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 12.5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 200 mg。你应给多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
滴注以 40 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 8 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一袋液体在 50 mL 中含药 250 mg,以 12 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 96 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 12:30 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者仅对压迫(疼痛刺激)睁眼,能说成句子但意识模糊,最佳运动反应表现为:手臂异常屈曲(去皮质姿势)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 60 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 110 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 60 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
答案: B · 拔除留置针并记录,如仍需要则另选部位重新置管
静脉炎是静脉的炎症。应拔除留置针,记录并观察该部位,只有在仍需要时才在别处重新置管。
答案: B · About 2 litres of fluid has been retained
A rapid weight change over a day reflects fluid, not fat; 1 kg is roughly 1 litre. Daily weights taken at the same time on the same scales are a sensitive measure of fluid retention.
答案: C · Mixing up pounds and kilograms can lead to large dosing errors
Pediatric doses are often calculated per kilogram. A weight recorded in pounds but read as kilograms gives a dose more than twice as high, so weight is recorded and used only in kilograms.
答案: D · 让患者坐直,一次给一片药
直立体位和一次给一种药可降低窒息风险。只有在药房确认安全后才可碾碎,因为一些缓释和肠溶制剂碾碎后会有危险。
答案: D · Matching each patient’s needs to staff competence
Assignments are based mainly on patient acuity and needs and on each staff member’s skills and scope. Geography and continuity of care help, but they come after safety.
答案: D · 一名患者说这是“我一生中最严重的头痛”,突然发作,血压 170/100 mmHg
突发的剧烈“霹雳样”头痛可能意味着脑出血,如蛛网膜下腔出血,属于急症。其他患者的问题是已知的、稳定的,与其病史相符。
答案: A · It lowers the oncotic pressure that holds fluid in the blood vessels
Albumin creates oncotic pressure, drawing fluid into the capillaries. When it is low, as in liver disease, nephrotic syndrome or malnutrition, fluid leaks into the tissues.
答案: B · "I will rub the area firmly after the injection."
Rubbing the site after an anticoagulant injection increases bruising and is avoided. Rotating sites, injecting subcutaneously and reporting bleeding are correct.
答案: A · Creatine kinase (CK)
Statins can cause myopathy and, rarely, rhabdomyolysis. A raised CK confirms muscle injury, and the provider may stop the statin. The nurse also asks about dark urine, which can signal myoglobin in the urine.核对依据: Creatine Kinase · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023)
答案: A · Calcium gluconate
Absent reflexes and slow breathing indicate magnesium toxicity. The infusion is stopped, the provider is called, the airway and breathing are supported, and IV calcium gluconate is given as prescribed to counteract magnesium.
答案: C · 500 micrograms
0.5 mg × 1000 = 500 micrograms. Writing "micrograms" in full (or "mcg" in US practice), not "µg", helps avoid confusion with "mg".
答案: D · Tell the surgical team, as the supplements can increase bleeding
Ginkgo and garlic may impair platelet function and add to warfarin's bleeding risk. The team needs a full list of supplements so it can plan, and the patient should not change warfarin without advice.
答案: D · It raises statin levels and the risk of muscle damage
Grapefruit juice inhibits the CYP3A4 enzyme, increasing levels of drugs such as simvastatin and some calcium channel blockers. Higher statin levels raise the risk of myopathy. Patients are advised to avoid large amounts or choose a statin not affected.
答案: C · Too high a pressure damages the trachea; too low allows aspiration
Cuff pressure is usually kept at about 20–30 cmH₂O. Higher pressures reduce blood flow to the tracheal mucosa, risking ulceration and stenosis; lower pressures allow secretions to leak past and cause aspiration and VAP. A cuff manometer is used.
答案: B · 低于 0.5 mL/kg/h,持续 6 小时或更长
KDIGO 将 AKI 定义为 48 小时内肌酐升高 ≥26.5 µmol/L(0.3 mg/dL)、7 天内升至基线的 ≥1.5 倍,或尿量低于 0.5 mL/kg/h 持续 6 小时。因此准确的液体平衡记录至关重要。
答案: B · A patient with an injury at T4
Autonomic dysreflexia usually occurs with injuries at T6 or above. Below this level, the body can still control the sympathetic response to stimuli such as a full bladder. Lumbar and sacral injuries do not usually cause it.
答案: D · They are used to induce remission, not for maintenance
Steroids settle flares but are not effective or safe for maintenance because of side effects such as osteoporosis, diabetes and infection. Drugs such as aminosalicylates, immunomodulators or biologics maintain remission.
答案: D · "I can cut the patch in half if I need less."
Cutting a fentanyl patch can release the drug unpredictably and cause overdose. Heat increases absorption, used patches still contain drug and must be folded and disposed of safely, and sites are rotated.
答案: D · Post-term (postmature)
Post-term babies often have dry, peeling skin, long nails, little vernix and lanugo and an alert look. They may also have meconium staining and are at risk of hypoglycaemia.
答案: C · Do not stop it suddenly; arrange urgent specialist review
Valproate is strongly teratogenic, but stopping antiepileptics suddenly can cause seizures that harm mother and fetus. She needs urgent specialist review to change treatment safely, ideally before conception.
答案: A · Posterior rib fractures
Posterior rib fractures in infants are highly suggestive of abuse because they usually result from forceful squeezing of the chest. Bruises on the shins and grazes are common in mobile children.
答案: C · The baby's blood glucose
Babies of mothers with diabetes produce extra insulin before birth, so after the cord is cut they are at high risk of hypoglycaemia. Jitteriness is a common sign, so blood glucose is checked straight away and the baby is fed or treated as per protocol.
答案: A · Sit on the edge of the bed for a moment and then stand up slowly
Many antipsychotics cause orthostatic hypotension through alpha-1 blockade. Rising slowly reduces dizziness and the risk of falls; the nurse also checks lying and standing blood pressure.
答案: A · Discuss with the prescriber whether he can take it in the morning instead
Fluoxetine can be activating and cause insomnia. Taking it in the morning, with the prescriber's agreement, often helps. Stopping suddenly or using alcohol is unsafe.
答案: 15:50
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 2.4 L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3.4 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 8.8 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 960 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 60 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 1.73 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 17:10 输完。
答案: 中度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: DBP = 35 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
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