感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why are patients with a new ileostomy at risk of dehydration?
A patient says, "I've bought nicotine patches and I'm stopping smoking on Monday." Which stage of change is this?
A patient is on suicide precautions. Which room safety measure is appropriate?
A 2-year-old living in a house built many decades ago has anemia, irritability and poor appetite. Which cause should the nurse suspect?
When making patient assignments, what should the charge nurse consider first?
During surgery under general anesthesia, a patient develops rising end-tidal carbon dioxide, muscle rigidity and a rapidly increasing temperature. Which drug should the nurse anticipate?
静脉输液过程中,留置针周围区域变得肿胀、发凉、苍白,输液速度减慢。可能发生了什么?
Several hours after thyroid surgery, a patient has increasing neck swelling, stridor and difficulty breathing. What is most likely?
一名意识清醒的患者血糖为 54 mg/dL(3.0 mmol/L),已摄入 15 g 速效碳水化合物。应在何时复测血糖?
A patient has a hemoglobin of 11.2 g/dL (112 g/L), an MCV of 64 fL, a normal ferritin and a normal-to-high red cell count. What is the most likely cause?
Why is simvastatin traditionally taken in the evening?
An older patient with coronary artery disease is starting levothyroxine for hypothyroidism. Why is a low starting dose used?
A patient's blood pressure is 120/60 mmHg. What is the approximate mean arterial pressure?
An older patient's varicose vein bursts at the ankle and bleeds heavily. What is the most effective first aid?
A patient has confirmed meningococcal meningitis. What is usually offered to their close household contacts?
一名颅内压升高的患者需要气管内吸痰。哪种做法最恰当?
Why is pethidine (meperidine) generally avoided for regular pain relief?
A patient has had a large terminal ileum resection for Crohn's disease. Which long-term problems should the nurse anticipate?
缩写 HELLP 代表什么?
A woman at 36 weeks has a positive syphilis test confirmed for the first time. What should the nurse expect?
Which instruction about using an adrenaline (epinephrine) auto-injector is correct?
A 3-year-old was pulled from a pool after a brief submersion. She is now awake and coughs now and then. What should the nurse advise?
一名边缘型人格障碍患者称赞某一位护士是“唯一理解我的人”,并说其他护士都没用。团队最佳的应对是什么?
A woman taking carbamazepine for bipolar disorder uses an oral contraceptive pill. What should the nurse teach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 129.5553 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tbsp,每天两次,共 5 天。按1 tbsp = 15 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.3 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
处方为 6200 单位的药物,药液规格为 10000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
滴注以 75 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 12 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一组输液以 20 滴/分的速度经 60 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 300 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 10:30 时已输入 300 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 97%吸室内空气,血压 124/74 mmHg,脉搏 92 次/分,清醒,体温 36.2 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:躯干粉红,手脚青紫,心率 125 次/分,刺激时做鬼脸,活动活跃,无呼吸。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
答案: A · The output is liquid and contains a lot of water and salt
The colon normally reabsorbs water and salt. An ileostomy bypasses it, so high output can quickly cause dehydration and low sodium; output is monitored and fluids encouraged.
答案: A · Preparation
In preparation the person intends to act soon and has taken small steps, such as buying patches. Action begins when they actually stop smoking.
答案: B · Remove items that could be used for self-harm, such as belts and cords
Patients at risk of suicide need a safe environment, with belts, cords, sharp objects and glass removed, and observation at the level ordered. Privacy is secondary to safety in this situation.
答案: D · Lead poisoning from old paint dust or chips
Lead-based paint in older housing is the main source of lead exposure in young children, who put dust and chips in their mouths. Lead can cause anemia, behavior changes and developmental problems, and a blood lead level confirms it.
答案: B · Matching each patient’s needs to staff competence
Assignments are based mainly on patient acuity and needs and on each staff member’s skills and scope. Geography and continuity of care help, but they come after safety.
答案: A · Dantrolene
Malignant hyperthermia is a reaction to some anesthetic agents that causes hypermetabolism. The triggering drug is stopped and dantrolene is given, with active cooling and support.
答案: B · 液体渗入周围组织(渗出)
渗出会使皮肤发凉、肿胀、苍白。应停止输液并拔除留置针。如果液体是发疱剂,则属于外渗,需要特殊处理。
答案: A · A haematoma compressing the airway
A rapidly expanding neck haematoma after thyroid surgery is an airway emergency. Call for urgent help; local protocols often require equipment to release the wound clips or sutures to be kept at the bedside.
答案: D · 约 15 分钟后
15 法则是指摄入 15 g 速效碳水化合物,15 分钟后复测,如果血糖仍低于 70 mg/dL(3.9 mmol/L)则重复。然后再吃点心或正餐有助于预防复发。核对依据: Low blood sugar - self-care · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: A · Thalassemia trait
Thalassemia trait causes microcytosis from reduced globin production, often with a normal or high red cell count and normal ferritin. Iron deficiency has low ferritin. Iron supplements do not help thalassemia trait and can cause iron overload.核对依据: Thalassemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: A · It is short-acting, and cholesterol synthesis peaks at night
The liver makes most cholesterol overnight, and short-acting statins such as simvastatin work best when taken in the evening. Atorvastatin and rosuvastatin can be taken at any time of day.
答案: D · Fast replacement raises cardiac oxygen demand and can cause angina
Thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate, heart rate and contractility. In older people and those with heart disease, the dose is started low and increased slowly to avoid ischaemia and arrhythmias.
答案: D · 80 mmHg
MAP ≈ diastolic + (systolic − diastolic) ÷ 3 = 60 + 60 ÷ 3 = 80 mmHg. The heart spends longer in diastole, so MAP is closer to the diastolic value. A MAP of at least about 65 mmHg is a common target for organ perfusion.
答案: B · Lie the patient down, raise the leg and press firmly on the site
Bleeding from a varicose vein can be dramatic. Lying the patient flat and raising the leg above heart level lowers venous pressure, and firm direct pressure stops most bleeds. Medical review is needed afterwards, as it can recur.
答案: B · Preventive antibiotics
Close contacts, such as people living in the same household, are offered chemoprophylaxis, for example with ciprofloxacin or rifampicin (rifampin), to clear carriage. Public health teams usually coordinate this.
答案: B · 预先给氧,每次吸引时间要短,并限制吸引次数
吸痰通过咳嗽、低氧和高碳酸血症升高颅内压。仅在需要时进行,并预先给氧,每次不超过约 10–15 秒,次数要少,头部保持抬高并居中。有些病房可使用镇静或利多卡因。
答案: C · A metabolite can build up and cause seizures
Pethidine's metabolite norpethidine accumulates with repeated doses or kidney impairment and can cause agitation, tremor and seizures. Other opioids are preferred.
答案: A · Vitamin B12 deficiency and bile-acid diarrhoea
The terminal ileum absorbs vitamin B12 and bile acids. After resection, B12 replacement may be needed, and unabsorbed bile acids reaching the colon cause diarrhoea.
答案: A · 溶血、肝酶升高、血小板减少
HELLP 综合征是子痫前期的严重并发症。典型表现为右上腹或上腹痛、恶心和不适,血压不一定很高。
答案: B · Penicillin now and assessment of the baby at birth
Syphilis is treated with penicillin in pregnancy, which also treats the fetus and prevents congenital syphilis. The partner is tested and treated, and the newborn is assessed and followed up.
答案: A · Inject into the outer thigh, through clothing if needed, and call emergency services
Auto-injectors are given into the outer mid-thigh and can go through clothing. Emergency services are called after every use, as symptoms can recur, and a second dose may be needed.
答案: C · Observe her in hospital for several hours, as breathing problems can develop later
After a drowning incident, even a child who seems well can develop worsening breathing difficulty and low oxygen over the following hours. Children who had symptoms such as coughing need medical assessment and a period of observation.
答案: C · 全团队商定一致的规则和回应方式
分裂是把工作人员分成“全好”和“全坏”。一致的团队方法、清晰的界限以及工作人员之间的良好沟通,可以防止团队被操纵,并帮助患者。
答案: A · Carbamazepine can make the pill less effective, so she should discuss contraception with the prescriber
Carbamazepine induces liver enzymes and speeds up the breakdown of many drugs, including hormonal contraceptives. This can lead to unplanned pregnancy, and carbamazepine is also teratogenic.
答案: x = 129.6 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 75 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.3 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 0.62 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: V = 900 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 15 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = 690 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 5.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 50 min,所以袋子大约在 16:20 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 1
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中度异常
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
5 分钟时低于 7 分,通常每 5 分钟重复评分一次,直至 20 分钟。
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