感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which part of the stethoscope is best for hearing low-pitched sounds such as some heart murmurs?
A urine culture reports a mixed growth of several organisms. What is the most likely explanation?
A visitor with a cold wants to see a patient who has severe neutropenia. What should the nurse advise?
一袋化疗药物泄漏到地板上。第一步是什么?
Five days after starting heparin, a patient’s platelet count has fallen by more than half. What should the nurse suspect?
A patient admitted with a stroke this morning asks for a glass of water. What should the nurse do first?
Which is a recognised risk factor for postoperative nausea and vomiting?
A patient on metformin with reduced kidney function is due a CT scan with IV contrast. Why might metformin be withheld?
A patient on hemodialysis has an arteriovenous (AV) fistula in the left arm. Where should the nurse draw routine blood samples?
The nurse teaches a patient with chronic kidney disease about a potassium-restricted diet. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
格列齐特等磺脲类药物最重要的不良反应是什么?
An older patient who has taken omeprazole for many years has muscle cramps, tremor and an irregular heartbeat. Which lab finding is most likely linked to the drug?
A patient arrives with suspected cardiac chest pain. How soon should a 12-lead ECG be recorded?
A patient with infective endocarditis is on IV gentamicin with another antibiotic. Which monitoring is most important?
Before surgery for a phaeochromocytoma, why is an alpha-blocker started before any beta-blocker?
A patient with multiple sclerosis has had worse leg weakness for one day, together with a fever and burning on passing urine. What is the most likely explanation?
Which factor can precipitate hepatic encephalopathy in a patient with cirrhosis?
At the end of an operation, the final count shows one swab missing. What should happen?
一名妊娠 32 周、已知有前置胎盘的女性因出血入院。必须避免哪项操作?
一名子痫前期的女性发生强直–阵挛性抽搐。护士应首先怎么做?
A newborn is still wet a few minutes after birth. Which heat-loss mechanism is the main concern, and how is it prevented?
The safe dose range of a drug is 25–50 mg/kg per day, divided every 8 hours. A 12 kg child is prescribed 250 mg every 8 hours. What should the nurse do?
A patient with PTSD begins to dissociate during a conversation. Which grounding technique can the nurse use?
一名自愿入院、没有即时伤害风险的患者想不顾医嘱离开病房。正确的一般处理方式是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 167 cm。按 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以英寸表示的身高h。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 21:10 开始,到次日早晨 06:55 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一名体重 15 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 1 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 2000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 2 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 40 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 900 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 21:00 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者仅对压迫(疼痛刺激)睁眼,只发出无法理解的声音,如呻吟,最佳运动反应表现为:把肢体从压迫处缩回(正常屈曲)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: B · The bell, placed lightly on the skin
The bell picks up low-pitched sounds and must be held lightly. The diaphragm, pressed firmly, is used for high-pitched sounds such as normal breath, bowel and heart sounds.
答案: A · The sample was contaminated during collection
A mixed growth usually means skin or perineal bacteria contaminated the sample. A clean-catch midstream sample, or a sample from the catheter sampling port, gives a more reliable result.
答案: A · Postpone the visit until the visitor is well
Patients with severe neutropenia cannot fight infections well. People with respiratory or other infections should not visit until they are well; other visitors perform hand hygiene.
答案: D · 穿戴溢出处理包里的防护装备并控制泄漏
危险药物溢出应使用溢出处理包处理,包括经化疗药物测试的手套、隔离衣和护目装备。应封锁该区域,控制泄漏,清理后作为危险废物处置,并上报。
答案: C · Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia usually appears 5–10 days after starting heparin, with a large fall in platelets and a risk of clotting. The nurse reports at once so heparin can be stopped.
答案: A · Check that a swallow screen has been done before giving anything by mouth
After a stroke, the patient stays NPO (nothing by mouth) until a swallow screen shows it is safe. Giving fluids first risks aspiration, even with a straw or thickener.
答案: C · Use of opioids after surgery
Known risk factors include opioids, female sex, being a non-smoker, previous PONV or motion sickness and longer general anaesthetics. High-risk patients may be given preventive antiemetics.
答案: C · There is a risk of lactic acidosis if kidney function worsens
Iodinated contrast can worsen kidney function, and metformin can then accumulate and cause lactic acidosis. Local policy guides when to stop and restart it.
答案: C · From the right arm
Venipuncture, blood pressure readings and IV lines are avoided in the arm with an AV fistula or graft, to prevent damage, clotting and infection of the access. Only the dialysis team uses the access, for dialysis.
答案: C · "Dried apricots and raisins will be a good snack for me now"
Dried fruits such as apricots and raisins are very high in potassium and should be limited in kidney disease with hyperkalemia. Limiting high-potassium foods, leaching vegetables and reading labels are correct strategies.核对依据: Potassium in diet · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Spironolactone · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2018)
答案: C · 低血糖
磺脲类关闭 β 细胞上的 ATP 敏感性钾通道,促使胰岛素释放。即使血糖已经很低,胰岛素仍会释放,因此低血糖是主要风险。
答案: C · Low serum magnesium
Long-term PPI use can cause hypomagnesaemia, which leads to cramps, tremor and arrhythmias. Other long-term risks include fractures, vitamin B12 deficiency and C. difficile infection.
答案: D · Within about 10 minutes of arrival
A 12-lead ECG should be recorded and interpreted within about 10 minutes of first contact, because STEMI needs immediate reperfusion. Repeat ECGs are taken if the pain changes or continues. Troponin results take longer and should not delay the ECG.
答案: B · Drug levels, renal function and hearing or balance changes
Gentamicin is nephrotoxic and ototoxic. Levels are measured to guide dosing, renal function is checked regularly and patients are asked about tinnitus, hearing loss and dizziness. Risk is greater with loop diuretics, older age and longer courses.
答案: A · A beta-blocker alone can cause a dangerous rise in BP
Blocking beta receptors alone leaves catecholamines acting on alpha receptors, causing severe vasoconstriction and a hypertensive crisis. Alpha blockade, such as with phenoxybenzamine, comes first, and a beta-blocker may be added later for tachycardia.
答案: A · A pseudo-relapse caused by infection
Infection and fever can temporarily worsen existing MS symptoms without new damage (a pseudo-relapse). The infection, here probably a UTI, is treated first. Steroids for a true relapse are considered only if the infection is excluded.
答案: B · Constipation
Constipation, GI bleeding, infection, dehydration, low potassium and sedative drugs can trigger encephalopathy. Keeping the bowels open, for example with lactulose, reduces ammonia absorption.
答案: A · Tell the surgeon, search, and X-ray if it is not found
Any discrepancy is reported immediately, the wound is checked before closure, the area and waste are searched, and an X-ray is taken if the item is not found. The event is documented and reported.
答案: A · 阴道指诊
阴道指诊可能扰动低置的胎盘并导致严重出血。监护、静脉通路、血液检查和超声检查都是合适的。
答案: D · 呼救,留在她身边,保护她免受伤害,并在可能时将她翻成侧卧位
子痫发作时,应呼救、防止受伤,抽搐停止后将她翻成侧卧位以保持气道通畅并给氧。按医嘱给予硫酸镁,待母亲情况稳定后再评估胎儿。
答案: B · Evaporation; dry the baby straight away, including the head
A wet newborn loses heat rapidly through evaporation. Drying the baby at once, removing wet towels, covering the head and skin-to-skin contact all reduce heat loss.
答案: D · Contact the prescriber, because 750 mg a day is above the maximum of 600 mg
Safe range = 12 × 25 to 12 × 50 = 300–600 mg/day. Prescribed = 250 × 3 = 750 mg/day, which is above the maximum. The nurse withholds the dose and clarifies with the prescriber, never adjusting it alone.
答案: C · Ask her to name things she can see, hear and touch in the room right now
Grounding techniques use the senses to bring the person back to the here and now. Asking for details of the trauma during dissociation can deepen distress.
答案: C · 解释风险,告知团队,记录谈话内容,并依照法律和政策尊重其离开的权利
自愿入院的患者通常可以离开,不过在评估其风险期间可能被要求等待。拘留某人需要法律授权。护士应告知团队、评估风险并记录。
答案: h = 65.7 in
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: t = 9.75 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.5 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: t = 5.6 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: I = 1400 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 48 min,所以袋子大约在 23:48 输完。
答案: 重度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 高风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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