感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient has just died. What should the nurse find out before starting last offices?
A patient opens their eyes only to pain, makes incomprehensible sounds and withdraws from a painful stimulus. What is the Glasgow Coma Scale score?
A patient is on a ventilator. Which bed position helps to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia?
A patient arrives in the operating room for knee surgery, and the site has not been marked. What should happen?
A patient with schizophrenia says voices are telling him to hurt his roommate. What is the priority?
一名护士正在护理四位患者。可以安全地将谁分配给护理助理进行常规护理?
A rising serum creatinine most often indicates:
A few hours after cardiac surgery, a patient has low blood pressure, a raised jugular venous pressure and quiet, muffled heart sounds. What should be suspected?
慢性肾脏病患者应在何时服用醋酸钙或司维拉姆等磷结合剂?
一名慢性肾脏病患者磷酸盐为 7.2 mg/dL(2.3 mmol/L)。哪项饮食指导最恰当?
During an amphotericin B infusion, the patient has fever, chills and shaking. What is the most likely explanation?
一名接触有机磷农药的农民出现瞳孔缩小、大量流涎、出汗、支气管分泌物增多和心动过缓。其机制是什么?
A patient who had a stroke has a weak swallow. Which measure most reduces the risk of aspiration pneumonia?
On day 2 after a surgical tracheostomy, the tube falls out. The patient is breathing but distressed. What should the nurse do first?
A patient with type 1 diabetes has gastroenteritis and cannot eat. Which sick-day advice is correct?
一名肺癌合并 SIADH 的患者血钠 112 mmol/L,正在抽搐。最恰当的治疗是什么?
出血性消化性溃疡内镜治疗后,常用哪类药物来抑制胃酸?
On day 5 after bowel resection, a patient has a fever, tachycardia and worsening abdominal pain, and the drain contains brown, faeculent fluid. What is most likely?
Why is an indwelling catheter placed before a caesarean birth?
一名妊娠 34 周的女性遭遇车祸。她腹痛,子宫强直且有压痛,阴道仅有少量出血。出现晚期减速。哪种说法最准确?
Why are IV fluids for young children given with an infusion pump or a volume-control set?
The nurse has taught the parents of a child with type 1 diabetes. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
How should a nurse screen a patient for intimate partner violence?
一名自愿入院、没有即时伤害风险的患者想不顾医嘱离开病房。正确的一般处理方式是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 12:50 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1 tsp,每天三次,共 10 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一名体重 18 kg 的儿童按 20 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 40 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 120 mg。你应给多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
医嘱要求以 50 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 5 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 08:00 开始用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 10:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 99%正在补充吸氧,血压 124/74 mmHg,脉搏 82 次/分,清醒,体温 37.7 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: A · The family's religious and cultural wishes
Some faiths have specific rules, for example about who may touch or wash the body and how soon burial should happen. Asking first respects the person and the family.
答案: A · 8
Eyes to pain score 2, incomprehensible sounds score 2 and withdrawal from pain scores 4, giving 8. A GCS of 8 or less suggests the patient may not be able to protect their airway.
答案: C · Head of the bed raised 30 to 45 degrees
Raising the head of the bed to 30–45 degrees reduces aspiration of oral and gastric secretions into the lungs. It is part of the usual ventilator care bundle, unless contraindicated.
答案: A · Do not start until the site is marked and verified with the patient
Wrong-site surgery is prevented by marking the site before the procedure, ideally with the awake patient’s involvement, and confirming it at the time-out. The procedure does not begin until this is done.
答案: B · Keep everyone safe and tell the team, as the risk of harm is high
Command hallucinations to harm others are a serious safety risk. The nurse keeps the patient and others safe, for example by separating them, and informs the team at once.
答案: A · 卒中后五天、需要协助洗澡且生命体征稳定的患者
需要日常生活活动协助的稳定患者适合由助理提供常规护理。新置入的胸腔引流管、有症状的低血糖和首次术后评估需要持证护士。
答案: A · Reduced kidney function
Creatinine is a muscle waste product filtered by the kidneys. A rise shows the glomerular filtration rate is falling, as in acute kidney injury.
答案: C · Cardiac tamponade
Hypotension, raised JVP and muffled heart sounds (Beck's triad) suggest cardiac tamponade. Blood in the pericardial space compresses the heart and needs urgent drainage.
答案: C · 随餐服用
磷结合剂在肠道中起作用,结合食物中的磷酸盐,因此应随餐服用。在两餐之间服用几乎没有效果。
答案: C · 限制富含磷酸盐的食物,如加工食品和可乐
CKD 中的高磷通过限制磷摄入、随餐服用结合剂和透析来处理。含有磷酸盐添加剂的加工食品、可乐和大量乳制品是主要来源。核对依据: Phosphorus: Tips for People with Chronic Kidney Disease · Indian Health Service (HHS); Phosphorus and Your Kidneys · National Kidney Foundation (2024); Chronic kidney disease · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · A common infusion reaction to amphotericin B
Amphotericin B often causes fever, rigors and nausea during infusion. Premedication and a slower rate can reduce them, and kidney function and electrolytes are monitored.
答案: B · 抑制乙酰胆碱酯酶
有机磷抑制乙酰胆碱酯酶,使乙酰胆碱在毒蕈碱和烟碱受体处蓄积。阿托品阻断毒蕈碱作用,早期给予解磷定可使该酶重新活化。
答案: D · A swallowing assessment and sitting upright for meals
Patients with dysphagia need a formal swallowing assessment, food and fluid textures that are safe for them, sitting upright during and after meals and close supervision. Good oral hygiene also reduces the bacterial load that can be aspirated.
答案: B · Call for expert help and give oxygen to both the face and the stoma
In the first days after a tracheostomy, the tract is immature and the tube can easily be misplaced into the tissues. Emergency guidance is to call for an airway expert, apply oxygen to face and stoma and assess breathing. Reinsertion is done only by trained staff.
答案: B · Keep taking basal insulin and check glucose and ketones more often
Stress hormones during illness raise glucose and ketones. Stopping insulin can quickly lead to DKA. Patients keep taking basal insulin, test glucose and ketones often, drink fluids and seek help if ketones rise or vomiting persists.
答案: D · 在监护下使用高渗盐水,限制上升速度
严重的症状性低钠血症用小剂量高渗盐水推注治疗,使血钠升高几个 mmol/L 并控制抽搐。总体纠正速度要加以限制(24 小时内常不超过约 8–10 mmol/L),以避免渗透性脱髓鞘综合征。应经常检测血钠。
答案: B · 质子泵抑制剂
PPI 提高胃内 pH,稳定血凝块,并减少溃疡出血内镜治疗后的再出血。应检测并根除 H. pylori,并尽可能停用 NSAID。
答案: B · An anastomotic leak
Leakage at the join in the bowel causes peritonitis and sepsis, usually a few days after surgery. Faeculent drain fluid makes it very likely. It needs urgent surgical review, sepsis care and often return to theatre.
答案: A · To keep the bladder empty during surgery
An empty bladder reduces the risk of bladder injury during surgery and allows urine output to be monitored. It is usually removed once the woman can walk.
答案: A · 她可能是隐性胎盘早剥,尽管可见出血很少但失血量很大
胎盘早剥可向胎盘后方的间隙出血。疼痛、子宫强直和胎儿窘迫而可见出血很少,提示隐性胎盘早剥,对母亲和胎儿都是急症。
答案: B · To prevent accidental fluid overload
Infants and young children can quickly become fluid overloaded. Infusion pumps and burette (volume-control) sets limit how much fluid can run in, and the rate and site are checked regularly.
答案: A · "For a low, I'll give her a chocolate bar, because it's the fastest sugar."
Hypoglycaemia is treated with fast-acting carbohydrate such as glucose tablets or a sugary drink. Chocolate contains fat, which slows absorption, so it is not a good first treatment. The other statements are correct.
答案: D · Ask in private, without the partner or family present
Screening should be done privately, using direct, non-judgemental questions. Abuse occurs in all groups, so routine screening is better than asking only those with obvious injuries.
答案: A · 解释风险,告知团队,记录谈话内容,并依照法律和政策尊重其离开的权利
自愿入院的患者通常可以离开,不过在评估其风险期间可能被要求等待。拘留某人需要法律授权。护士应告知团队、评估风险并记录。
答案: 00:50
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 150 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 9 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 4.2 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: D = 2 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = −355 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为负:患者丢失的液体多于摄入的液体。
答案: V = 300 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 2
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中度风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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