感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
一名意识清醒的糖尿病患者血糖低,且能安全吞咽。第一步是什么?
For a patient at risk of pressure ulcers, why is the head of the bed usually kept at 30 degrees or less if their condition allows?
Why is “QD” (once daily) on The Joint Commission’s “Do Not Use” list?
An IV bag from the pharmacy holds the correct drug, but the label shows another patient’s name. What should the nurse do?
值班护士长需要腾出一张床位。哪位患者最适合出院或转到较低级别的护理?
四名患者同时到达急诊科。应先看谁?
一名 2 型糖尿病患者急性起病,严重脱水,血糖 40 mmol/L,但没有明显的酮体。最可能的诊断是什么?
Why are patients with nephrotic syndrome at increased risk of blood clots?
A patient starts high-dose prednisone. Which laboratory change should the nurse expect?
A patient's bedside glucose meter shows "HI" (above its measuring range). The patient is drowsy. What should the nurse do?
A patient with insulin-treated diabetes is found unconscious with very low blood glucose. There is no IV access. Which drug can a trained helper give?
During an alteplase infusion for acute ischaemic stroke, the patient develops a sudden severe headache and her level of consciousness falls. What is the nurse's first action?
Rheumatic heart disease most often follows which infection?
Four surgical patients need VTE prevention. For which patient is mechanical prophylaxis alone most appropriate?
哪种电解质模式是 Addison 病的典型表现?
A 66-year-old smoker has had two episodes of painless red urine. Urine cultures are negative. Which plan is most appropriate?
Why do patients with major burns lose so much fluid in the first 24–48 hours?
An incontinent patient has diffuse, shiny, red and broken skin in the natal cleft and buttocks with irregular edges, not over a bony prominence. What is most likely?
哪种模式定义了子宫收缩过频?
一名妊娠期糖尿病女性在孕期使用胰岛素。产后即刻她的胰岛素需求预期会有何变化?
A child's asthma action plan shows he is in the yellow zone. What should he do?
A child with Hirschsprung disease awaiting surgery develops fever, explosive diarrhoea and a very swollen abdomen. What should the nurse suspect?
A woman calls the emergency department after a sexual assault an hour ago. What advice helps to preserve forensic evidence?
Verbal de-escalation has failed, and a patient picks up a chair and threatens to throw it at the nurse. What should the nurse do first?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 5 lb 14 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 97 kg。请把剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。取到两位小数。
一个药瓶中含有 500 mg 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 9.6 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 10 mL。医嘱为 100 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 50000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 2000 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。8 小时后你发现袋中还剩 590 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。8 小时后你发现袋中还剩 410 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 16:00 时已输入 800 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 89%吸室内空气,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 82 次/分,清醒,体温 35.2 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:躯干粉红,手脚青紫,心率 60 次/分,刺激时做鬼脸,四肢略有屈曲,呼吸缓慢、不规则,哭声微弱。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
答案: A · 口服快速起效的碳水化合物,并复测血糖
对能吞咽的清醒患者,给予葡萄糖片或果汁等快速起效的葡萄糖,短时间后复测血糖。血糖回升后,再给予作用较持久的碳水化合物。
答案: C · Higher angles make the patient slide down, causing shear over the sacrum
When the head is raised high, the body tends to slide while the skin stays still, distorting the tissues over the sacrum. Keeping the angle low, where safe, reduces this shear.
答案: B · It can be misread as QID or QOD, so the drug is given too often or too rarely
“QD” and “QOD” can be confused with each other and with “QID”, leading to serious dosing errors. The word “daily” or “every other day” is written in full instead.
答案: D · Not hang it, and get a correctly labeled bag from the pharmacy
A label with another patient’s name means the bag may be meant for someone else or may differ in other ways. The nurse does not use it, returns it and reports the issue so the error can be investigated.
答案: D · 无并发症阑尾切除术后第 3 天,能进食,使用口服镇痛药
阑尾切除术后的患者病情稳定,能进食,口服镇痛即可控制。肌钙蛋白结果未出、氧需求上升和新发热,都意味着患者的病程尚不明朗。
答案: C · 一名 2 岁的儿童,流口水,身体前倾,有喘鸣
流口水、前倾(三脚架)姿势和喘鸣提示严重的上气道梗阻,如会厌炎,可能迅速变成完全梗阻。应让孩子保持平静,在气道专家到场之前不要检查咽喉。
答案: B · 高渗性高血糖状态
HHS 通常发生在 2 型糖尿病患者中。它在数天内逐渐发展,表现为极度高血糖、脱水和高渗透压,但酮症很轻。
答案: A · Anticoagulant proteins are lost in the urine and clotting factors rise
Loss of proteins such as antithrombin in the urine, together with increased hepatic production of clotting factors, creates a hypercoagulable state. Some patients need anticoagulation.
答案: C · A rise in blood glucose
Glucocorticoids raise blood glucose by increasing glucose production and reducing insulin sensitivity. They also tend to lower potassium, retain sodium and raise the white cell count by releasing neutrophils into the blood.核对依据: Blood Glucose Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · Send a venous sample to the lab and inform the provider at once
"HI" means the glucose exceeds the meter's range, so the true value is unknown and may be very high, as in DKA or HHS. A laboratory sample is sent, the provider is informed promptly, and the patient is assessed for dehydration and ketones.核对依据: Blood Glucose Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Diabetic ketoacidosis - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Glucagon by injection or nasal spray
Glucagon breaks down liver glycogen and raises blood glucose. Nothing is given by mouth to an unconscious patient because of the risk of choking and aspiration.
答案: B · Stop the alteplase infusion and notify the provider urgently
A sudden headache and neurological decline during thrombolysis suggest intracranial haemorrhage. The infusion is stopped at once and the provider is called for urgent assessment and imaging.
答案: C · A group A streptococcal throat infection
Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune reaction weeks after group A streptococcal pharyngitis. It can permanently damage heart valves, most often the mitral valve. Prompt antibiotic treatment of strep throat prevents it.
答案: A · A patient who had a brain haemorrhage two days ago
When bleeding risk is high, such as after recent intracranial haemorrhage, mechanical methods (intermittent pneumatic compression) are used instead of anticoagulants until it is safe. The other patients are at high VTE risk and would usually receive pharmacological prophylaxis unless contraindicated.
答案: C · 低钠高钾
醛固酮缺乏导致失钠、钾潴留,引起低钠血症和高钾血症。皮质醇缺乏还会加上低血糖和低血压。
答案: C · Urgent referral for cystoscopy and imaging
Painless visible haematuria in an older smoker, with no infection, must be investigated urgently for bladder or kidney cancer. Intermittent bleeding does not mean the cause has gone.
答案: B · Leaky capillaries let plasma move into the tissues
Inflammatory mediators make capillaries leaky, so plasma moves into the tissues and from the burn surface. Without fluids this causes burn shock; oedema is greatest in the first day or two.
答案: A · Incontinence-associated dermatitis
Incontinence-associated dermatitis is inflammation from urine or faeces, with diffuse redness and superficial erosion. It is managed with gentle cleansing, barrier products and managing incontinence, and is different from a pressure ulcer.
答案: A · 10 分钟内超过 5 次宫缩,以 30 分钟为期取平均
子宫收缩过频是指 10 分钟内超过五次宫缩(以 30 分钟为期取平均)。在使用缩宫素时,应通过减慢或停止输注来处理,尤其是当胎心率受到影响时。
答案: A · 迅速下降,因此需监测血糖,常停用胰岛素
胎盘产生引起胰岛素抵抗的激素。分娩后血糖通常恢复正常,因此常停用胰岛素并检测血糖。产后数周她需要做血糖检测,并长期筛查 2 型糖尿病。
答案: B · Use the reliever as the plan says and contact the doctor if it does not help
In the yellow zone (often 50–80% of personal best), the child follows the plan, usually extra reliever doses, and seeks medical advice if symptoms do not improve. Red-zone symptoms need emergency help.
答案: C · Enterocolitis, an emergency
Hirschsprung-associated enterocolitis is a life-threatening complication with fever, explosive foul-smelling diarrhoea and distension. It can progress to sepsis and needs urgent medical treatment.
答案: B · Avoid showering or changing clothes, and bring any clothing already removed in a paper bag
Not washing, changing or eating where possible helps keep evidence. Paper bags are used because plastic traps moisture and can degrade biological evidence. Her medical needs and choices remain the priority.
答案: C · Keep a safe distance, call for help and avoid trying to take the chair alone
When a patient is imminently violent, the nurse protects herself and others, keeps an exit route and summons a trained team. Acting alone risks injury to everyone involved.
答案: m = 2.67 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 29.1 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 2 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 40 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 147.5 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 23 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: B = 600 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 1.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 1 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 17:40 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 4
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中度异常
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
5 分钟时低于 7 分,通常每 5 分钟重复评分一次,直至 20 分钟。
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