感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which approach suits teaching an older adult with poor eyesight and mild memory problems?
What is the effect of deflating the blood pressure cuff too quickly?
A patient wants to use their own electric hair dryer in the hospital. What is correct?
Patients contaminated with radioactive dust arrive at the hospital. Which step removes most of the external contamination?
A patient taking clozapine reports a sore throat and fever. What is the priority action?
A child with sickle cell disease in a pain crisis develops chest pain, fever and an SpO₂ of 89%. What does this most likely mean?
Which tool is commonly used at the bedside to screen for delirium?
A seriously ill patient asks the nurse, "Am I dying?" What is the best initial response?
A patient on peritoneal dialysis notices that the drained fluid is cloudy and has abdominal pain. What should the nurse do?
Which set of results best shows that diabetic ketoacidosis is resolving?
Why is testing for HLA-B*15:02 recommended before carbamazepine in people of some Asian ancestries?
A patient taking long-term morphine for cancer pain becomes very sedated with slow breathing. Why is naloxone given in small, diluted doses?
为什么鼓励重度 COPD 患者少量多餐?
A 25-year-old non-smoker has wheeze and cough that come and go, worse at night and after exercise. Spirometry improves markedly after a bronchodilator. Which diagnosis is most likely?
Which statement about the PSA blood test is correct?
一名甲状腺功能减退患者已数周未服药,入院时体温过低、嗜睡,脉搏 46 次/分,血钠偏低,PaCO₂ 升高。最可能的诊断是什么?
哪项陈述最能描述阿片类药物耐受?
一名长期使用阿片类药物治疗慢性疼痛的患者因手术入院。下列哪项说法正确?
A breastfed baby has jaundice in the first week with poor feeding and few wet nappies. What is the most likely cause?
A woman who had a placenta praevia and two previous caesareans is scheduled for a caesarean. The team plans for possible hysterectomy and blood products. Why?
A 20-month-old drinks about 1.5 litres of cow's milk a day and eats little solid food. He is pale and tired. What is the most likely problem?
A toddler with sickle cell disease suddenly becomes pale and lethargic, with a fast heart rate and an enlarging left upper abdomen. What should the nurse suspect?
一名边缘型人格障碍患者称赞某一位护士是“唯一理解我的人”,并说其他护士都没用。团队最佳的应对是什么?
A patient taking venlafaxine has started a second serotonergic medicine. She is restless, sweating, has a fast pulse and twitching muscles. What should the nurse do first?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 95.9 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 19:30 开始,到次日早晨 02:20 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
某患者体重 90 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 5 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方为 650 单位的药物,药液规格为 1000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 2 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 30 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 18:30 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 81 kg,身高 190 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
答案: D · Short sessions, large-print materials and repeating key points
Older learners benefit from short, focused sessions, clear large print, good lighting, repetition and teach-back. Involving family can help but should not replace teaching the patient.
答案: B · The systolic may be read too low and the diastolic too high
Fast deflation means the gauge drops past the first and last sounds before they are heard. The usual advice is to deflate at about 2–3 mmHg per second.
答案: A · It is checked for electrical safety according to hospital policy before use
Electrical items from home can be faulty and cause shocks or fires. Policies usually require them to be inspected before use, and extension cords near patients are avoided.
答案: B · Removing the patient’s clothing
Removing clothing, then gently washing the skin, gets rid of most external radioactive contamination. Hard scrubbing damages the skin, and potassium iodide only protects the thyroid from radioactive iodine.
答案: C · Hold the dose and report so the white cell count can be checked
Clozapine can cause agranulocytosis. A sore throat or fever may be the first sign of infection, so the nurse reports it and the neutrophil count is checked before more doses are given.
答案: D · Acute chest syndrome, which needs urgent escalation and oxygen
Chest pain, fever and low oxygen in sickle cell disease suggest acute chest syndrome. It can worsen quickly, so oxygen, urgent review and prescribed treatment are needed.
答案: D · The Confusion Assessment Method (CAM)
The CAM, and similar tools such as the 4AT, check for an acute onset or fluctuating course, inattention and disorganised thinking or altered consciousness. Early detection allows causes to be treated.
答案: C · Gently explore what the patient understands and what has prompted the question
Exploring the patient's understanding and feelings opens an honest conversation and shows what information they want. The nurse can then involve the team for further discussion.
答案: A · Send the fluid for cell count and culture and report it
Cloudy effluent with abdominal pain suggests peritonitis, the main serious complication of peritoneal dialysis. A sample is sent for white cell count, Gram stain and culture, and antibiotics (often given in the dialysis fluid) are started as prescribed.核对依据: Dialysis - peritoneal · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: C · A closing anion gap with a rising bicarbonate and pH
DKA has resolved when the ketoacidosis has cleared: ketones fall, the anion gap normalizes, bicarbonate rises and the pH returns towards normal. Glucose alone is a poor guide, because it falls earlier.
答案: C · It greatly raises the risk of Stevens–Johnson syndrome
The HLA-B*15:02 allele, common in parts of South-East Asia, is strongly linked to carbamazepine-induced Stevens–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Carriers are given a different drug.
答案: D · To restore breathing without causing severe withdrawal and pain
In opioid-dependent patients, a large dose of naloxone can cause abrupt withdrawal, severe pain and agitation. Small titrated doses aim to restore adequate breathing while keeping some analgesia.
答案: C · 胃饱胀会限制膈肌活动,而且进食本身就很累
许多重度 COPD 患者体重下降,因为呼吸消耗大量能量,而大餐会引起腹胀和呼吸困难。少量、营养密度高的餐食有助于维持体重和肌力。
答案: B · Asthma
Asthma typically causes variable symptoms with reversible airflow obstruction. COPD usually affects older people with a smoking history and causes persistent, poorly reversible obstruction. Fibrosis gives a restrictive pattern.
答案: C · It can be raised by benign problems as well as by cancer
PSA can rise with BPH, prostatitis, UTI, recent ejaculation or instrumentation, as well as cancer. A normal level does not exclude cancer. Results are interpreted with symptoms, examination and other tests.
答案: B · 黏液性水肿昏迷
黏液性水肿昏迷表现为意识下降、体温过低、心动过缓、通气不足、低钠血症和低血糖,常由感染或漏服药物诱发。需要重症监护,静脉给予甲状腺激素,在排除肾上腺功能不全前给予类固醇覆盖,被动复温,并对镇静药格外谨慎。
答案: B · 随时间推移需要更高剂量才能获得相同效果
耐受是指随着时间推移,对同一剂量的反应降低。身体依赖是指突然停药会出现戒断症状。两者都不同于成瘾(阿片类药物使用障碍),后者是不顾伤害而强迫性使用。
答案: A · 继续使用平时的阿片类药物,并因耐受而加用额外镇痛
长期使用阿片类药物的患者存在耐受和身体依赖。停用平时的阿片类药物有戒断和疼痛失控的风险。应继续其基础剂量(或转换为其他途径),并加用多模式镇痛;他们往往比未用过阿片类药物的患者需要更多阿片类药物,同时需密切监测。
答案: D · Suboptimal intake jaundice
Early jaundice with poor intake is linked to insufficient milk, which slows stooling and increases reabsorption of bilirubin. Support with frequent effective feeds is the main treatment.
答案: A · She is at high risk of placenta accreta spectrum
A placenta praevia overlying a previous caesarean scar greatly raises the risk of an abnormally adherent placenta. This can cause massive haemorrhage, so delivery is planned in a unit with blood bank support.
答案: A · Iron-deficiency anaemia
Large volumes of cow's milk are low in iron, reduce appetite for iron-rich foods and can cause small losses of blood from the gut. Toddlers who drink too much milk are a classic group for iron-deficiency anaemia; milk is usually limited to about 500 mL a day.
答案: B · Splenic sequestration crisis, an emergency
In splenic sequestration, sickled cells are trapped in the spleen, which enlarges quickly while haemoglobin falls sharply, leading to shock. It needs urgent fluids and transfusion; parents are taught to feel the spleen and seek help.
答案: D · 全团队商定一致的规则和回应方式
分裂是把工作人员分成“全好”和“全坏”。一致的团队方法、清晰的界限以及工作人员之间的良好沟通,可以防止团队被操纵,并帮助患者。
答案: B · Hold the serotonergic medicines and inform the prescriber urgently
These signs suggest serotonin syndrome. The first steps are to stop the serotonergic drugs and get urgent medical review; supportive care and monitoring follow, and severe cases need intensive care.
答案: T = 35.5 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: t = 410 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 112.5 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.65 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: t = 2.2 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: I = 1120 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 3.6 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 36 min,所以袋子大约在 22:06 输完。
答案: B = 19
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 健康体重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
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