感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient is found on the floor beside the bed. What should the nurse do first?
A patient wants to keep taking St John's wort, a herbal remedy, while in hospital. Why should the nurse tell the prescriber?
Why are patients on long-term corticosteroids at higher risk from infections?
A patient in a vest restraint has slid down in bed, and the vest is pressing against the neck. What should the nurse do first?
A patient has a serum potassium of 2.9 mEq/L. Which finding should the nurse expect?
A patient has a heart rate of 38/min, feels dizzy and has a blood pressure of 80/50 mmHg. Which drug is usually given first, as prescribed?
首次静脉使用一种新抗生素后,最重要的观察是什么?
一名髋部骨折的老年患者在受伤两天后出现气短、意识混乱,胸部有瘀点状皮疹。应怀疑哪种并发症?
A pregnant woman's blood type is O Rh-negative, and her antibody screen (indirect Coombs test) is negative. What is usually offered at about 28 weeks?
A patient in DKA is receiving IV fluids and insulin. The glucose has fallen to about 220 mg/dL (12.2 mmol/L), but the anion gap is still high. What change would the nurse expect?
How should oral potassium chloride tablets be taken?
A patient who used heroin a few hours ago is given a first dose of buprenorphine and quickly develops severe withdrawal. Why?
How should a patient breathe in when using a dry powder inhaler?
A patient on spironolactone and an ACE inhibitor has a potassium of 6.8 mmol/L (6.8 mEq/L) with peaked T waves. What is usually given first to protect the heart?
为什么脊髓损伤后常教患者间歇性自我导尿?
The day after a lumbar puncture, a patient has a headache that is severe when standing and almost gone when lying flat. Temperature and neck movement are normal. What is the most likely cause?
Which instruction is important during bowel preparation for colonoscopy?
Why is an SGLT2 inhibitor such as dapagliflozin usually withheld before surgery?
分娩时婴儿头部已娩出,但肩膀卡住了。标准的第一步手法是什么?
A breastfeeding mother asks whether she can have a progestin-only implant before discharge. Which reply is best?
The nurse uses a blood pressure cuff that is too small for a child's arm. What effect will this have?
The nurse has taught the family of a 7-year-old with coeliac disease. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which postpartum presentation is a psychiatric emergency?
一名处于躁狂发作的患者在活动室里打断其他患者并且声音越来越大。最恰当的护理措施是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.43585 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 5 mcg/min。请把这个剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 20 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 500 mL 中含 40000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1500 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 250 mg,以 8 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 06:30 开始以 125 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 200 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者呼唤时睁眼,对人物、地点和时间定向正常,最佳运动反应表现为:遵嘱动作。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。使用的分级为:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度,13–14 中度,10–12 高,9 或以下极高。点击风险等级。
答案: D · Check responsiveness and look for injuries before moving them
The nurse first calls for help and assesses the patient, including for head and hip injury. The patient is moved only when safe, using proper equipment, and the doctor is informed.
答案: C · It interacts with many medicines and can reduce their effect
St John's wort induces liver enzymes and can lower levels of drugs such as warfarin and the contraceptive pill. All herbal and over-the-counter products are recorded and reviewed.
答案: D · Steroids suppress the immune response and can hide signs of infection
Corticosteroids reduce white cell activity and inflammation, so infections develop more easily and may cause less fever or redness. Nurses watch closely for subtle signs.
答案: C · Release the restraint at once and reposition the patient
Patients have died from strangulation when vest restraints moved up to the neck. The nurse frees the patient immediately, checks breathing and repositions them, then reassesses whether the restraint is needed at all.
答案: B · Muscle weakness and U waves on the ECG
Hypokalemia causes muscle weakness, cramps and arrhythmias, with flattened T waves and U waves on the ECG. Peaked T waves are a sign of hyperkalemia.
答案: B · Atropine
Atropine is the first-line drug for symptomatic bradycardia. Metoprolol, digoxin and diltiazem slow the heart and would make things worse; pacing may be needed if atropine does not work.
答案: C · 过敏反应的征象,如皮疹、哮鸣或肿胀
首剂有发生过敏性休克的风险。注意皮疹、荨麻疹、肿胀、哮鸣、气促和血压下降。
答案: D · 脂肪栓塞综合征
脂肪栓塞通常在长骨或骨盆骨折后 24–72 小时出现,表现为呼吸窘迫、神经系统改变和瘀点状皮疹三联征。
答案: B · Anti-D immunoglobulin (Rho(D) immune globulin)
An Rh-negative mother can form anti-D antibodies if Rh-positive fetal blood enters her circulation, which can cause hemolytic disease in a later pregnancy. Anti-D immunoglobulin at about 28 weeks and after delivery of an Rh-positive baby prevents this sensitization.核对依据: Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Hemolytic disease of the newborn · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · Add dextrose to the IV fluids and continue the insulin
The glucose usually falls before the ketoacidosis resolves. Dextrose is added so insulin can continue, clearing ketones without causing hypoglycemia, until the anion gap closes. Stopping insulin too early lets ketoacidosis return.
答案: D · With food and plenty of water, swallowed whole if slow-release
Oral potassium can cause nausea and, if a tablet lodges, ulceration of the oesophagus or gut. Taking it with food and plenty of water and staying upright reduces this; levels are monitored.
答案: B · Buprenorphine is a high-affinity partial agonist that displaces heroin
Buprenorphine binds mu receptors more strongly than heroin but activates them less, so it can precipitate withdrawal. Induction is started when the patient already has mild to moderate withdrawal signs.
答案: B · Quickly and deeply, after breathing out away from the device
Dry powder inhalers have no propellant, so a fast, deep inhalation is needed to disperse the powder. The patient breathes out away from the device first, because moist breath can clump the powder. Very weak or breathless patients may not manage this.
答案: D · Intravenous calcium gluconate or chloride
Severe hyperkalaemia with ECG changes is an emergency. IV calcium stabilises the myocardium within minutes. Insulin with glucose and nebulised salbutamol shift potassium into cells, and the cause (here spironolactone and the ACE inhibitor) is stopped. Cardiac monitoring is essential.
答案: B · 膀胱可能无法排空,定期排空可保护肾脏
脊髓损伤常引起神经源性膀胱。定期清洁间歇导尿可排空膀胱,防止高压,减少感染和肾损伤,并避免诱发自主神经反射异常。
答案: D · Post-dural puncture headache
A positional headache after a lumbar puncture, without fever or neck stiffness, fits a CSF leak. It is managed with rest, fluids, analgesia and caffeine, and an epidural blood patch if it persists. Fever or neck stiffness would suggest infection instead.
答案: A · Drink plenty of clear fluids while taking the preparation
Bowel preparation causes profuse diarrhoea, which can lead to dehydration and electrolyte disturbance. Patients follow a low-residue diet, then clear fluids, and drink plenty of extra clear fluid.
答案: A · It raises the risk of ketoacidosis, even with near-normal glucose
SGLT2 inhibitors can cause euglycaemic diabetic ketoacidosis around fasting and surgery. They are usually paused before surgery as advised, and ketones are checked if the patient becomes unwell.
答案: A · McRoberts 手法加耻骨上加压
对于肩难产,应呼叫援助,将产妇大腿急剧屈向腹部(McRoberts),并施加耻骨上加压,而不是宫底加压。宫底加压和用力牵拉头部可能加重嵌顿并伤及婴儿。
答案: C · Progestin-only methods are compatible with breastfeeding
Progestin-only methods such as implants, injections and pills do not have a clinically important effect on milk supply. Oestrogen-containing methods are usually avoided in the first weeks.
答案: A · The reading will be falsely high
A cuff that is too small gives falsely high readings, and one that is too large gives falsely low readings. The bladder width should be about 40% of the arm circumference.
答案: A · "He can eat normal bread at weekends if he's strict in the week."
Even small amounts of gluten damage the gut lining in coeliac disease, so the diet must be strict and lifelong. Avoiding cross-contamination, reading labels and using naturally gluten-free foods are correct.
答案: C · Confusion, hallucinations and rapidly changing mood a few days after birth
Postpartum psychosis usually begins within days to weeks of birth and can include confusion, delusions and hallucinations. It carries risks to mother and baby and needs immediate assessment, often in hospital.
答案: C · 平静地引导患者到刺激较少、较安静的区域,并设定清晰、简单的限制
躁狂患者受益于平静、低刺激的环境、坚定而一致的限制,以及简单、非竞争性的活动。
答案: x = 0.44 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: D = 0.3 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: R = 18.75 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 21 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:21 滴/分。
答案: D = 4 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = −605 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为负:患者丢失的液体多于摄入的液体。
答案: t = 6.1 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 6 h 08 min,所以袋子大约在 12:38 输完。
答案: 轻度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 高风险
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
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