感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
护理程序的评价阶段做什么?
四名患者同时需要你。你应该先看哪一位?
病房暴发诺如病毒感染期间,工作人员在护理患者后应采用哪种手卫生方法?
A patient on oxygen needs an MRI scan. Which plan is safe?
Which action by a nursing assistant needs the nurse to step in?
A marathon runner is confused, with a temperature of 41 °C and hot skin. What is the priority?
A patient has a fentanyl patch for chronic pain. Which advice is correct?
一名肝硬化患者腹部膨大紧绷,接受腹腔穿刺放液。为什么可能要给予白蛋白?
Two sets of blood cultures are ordered for a patient with suspected sepsis. How are they best collected?
The nurse teaches a patient starting lithium. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which blood test is used to monitor warfarin therapy?
某药的分布容积非常大(例如成人为 500 L)。这说明什么?
A patient's ankle–brachial pressure index (ABPI) is 0.6. What does this suggest?
A patient with stable severe COPD has a blood gas showing pH 7.37, a raised PaCO₂ and a raised bicarbonate. How should this be interpreted?
为什么 CKD 患者常在餐时服用磷结合剂?
A patient with suspected meningitis has a GCS of 9 and pupils that have become unequal. A doctor plans an immediate lumbar puncture. What is the main concern?
Why are patients with large burns at risk of hypothermia?
A patient with long-standing chronic pancreatitis now has weight loss, thirst and passing large volumes of urine. What should the nurse check first?
A woman 1 day after birth has a blood pressure of 150/96 mmHg and a headache. She had normal blood pressures in pregnancy. What should the nurse do?
A newborn's bilirubin is rising quickly at 30 hours despite phototherapy, and the baby is lethargic with an arched back and high-pitched cry. What does this suggest?
一名疑似会厌炎的儿童流口水并身体前倾而坐。必须避免哪项措施?
A 15-year-old in traction for a femur fracture is withdrawn and irritable. Which intervention best fits his developmental stage?
A patient taking an antipsychotic is going on a summer day trip. What should the nurse teach?
A woman taking carbamazepine for bipolar disorder uses an oral contraceptive pill. What should the nurse teach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 97.6 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液2 tsp,每 6 小时一次,共 5 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一名体重 122 kg 的患者体表面积为 2.17 m²。医嘱为 75 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
一名患者体重 61.6 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 1 mg/kg,储备液为 1 mL 中含 50 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V?
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
一袋中含有 2 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 3 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 15:00 时已输入 550 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 28 次/分,SpO₂ 98%正在补充吸氧,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 114 次/分,清醒,体温 34.8 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: B · 护士检查目标是否已达成,并调整计划
评价将患者的结局与计划的目标进行比较。如果目标未达成,护士重新评估并修改护理计划。
答案: B · 新出现高调、嘈杂呼吸声(喘鸣)的患者
喘鸣提示上气道部分阻塞,可能迅速危及生命。气道问题优先于呼吸、循环和其他需求。
答案: C · 用肥皂和水洗手
酒精手消毒剂不能可靠地杀灭诺如病毒,所以应使用肥皂和水洗手,通过机械作用将其清除。同时还应采取接触传播预防和彻底的环境清洁。
答案: B · Use only MRI-safe equipment, and never take a standard steel oxygen cylinder into the scanner room
Steel oxygen cylinders can become projectiles in an MRI room and cause fatal injuries. Only equipment labeled MRI-safe is used, and the patient’s oxygen needs are planned with the MRI team.
答案: C · Taking an oral temperature just after the patient drank cold water
A cold drink lowers mouth temperature for a short time, so the reading will be falsely low. The nurse should ask the assistant to wait before measuring. The other actions are correct.
答案: B · Rapid cooling while supporting airway and circulation
Heat stroke is an emergency in which body temperature rises and the brain is affected. Rapid cooling, for example with cold water or ice, is the priority; antipyretics do not work for heat stroke.
答案: D · Avoid heat sources such as hot water bottles over the patch
Heat increases absorption of fentanyl through the skin and can cause overdose. Old patches are removed and folded before disposal, and patches should not be cut unless the product allows it.
答案: D · 降低大量放液后发生循环功能障碍的风险
大量腹腔穿刺放液可引起低血压和肾功能损害。输注白蛋白有助于维持循环血容量。
答案: C · From two separate venipuncture sites, using strict aseptic technique
Taking cultures from two separate sites helps distinguish true bacteremia (growth in both sets) from skin contamination (growth in only one). The skin is cleaned carefully, the bottle tops are disinfected, and cultures are taken before antibiotics.
答案: B · "I will cut out salt from my diet completely to stay healthy"
A sudden fall in sodium intake makes the kidneys keep more sodium and lithium, raising the lithium level towards toxicity. Patients keep a normal, steady salt intake, drink enough fluids, report fluid loss and avoid NSAIDs unless approved.
答案: D · INR (prothrombin time)
Warfarin is monitored with the INR, a standardised prothrombin time. For most indications, such as atrial fibrillation or venous thrombosis, the target is usually 2–3.
答案: D · 药物被组织大量摄取
Vd 远大于全身总水量,说明血浆浓度低,因为大部分药物分布在组织(如脂肪或肌肉)中,地高辛和胺碘酮就是如此。
答案: D · Significant peripheral arterial disease
An ABPI of roughly 1.0–1.3 is normal, and below 0.9 indicates peripheral arterial disease; lower values mean more severe disease. A value above about 1.3 suggests calcified, incompressible vessels, common in diabetes, and is unreliable.
答案: B · Chronic respiratory acidosis with metabolic compensation
In chronic CO₂ retention, the kidneys retain bicarbonate over days, bringing the pH back towards normal. A normal pH with high PaCO₂ and high bicarbonate is compensated chronic respiratory acidosis. These patients usually have target saturations of 88–92%.
答案: A · 它们结合肾脏无法排泄的食物磷酸盐
在 CKD 中,磷酸盐潴留导致继发性甲状旁腺功能亢进、肾性骨病和血管钙化。随餐服用的磷结合剂在肠道内结合饮食中的磷酸盐。同时还需限制饮食中的磷。
答案: A · Raised pressure in the skull, so the procedure could cause herniation
Reduced consciousness and unequal pupils suggest raised ICP. A lumbar puncture in this situation may cause brain herniation, so imaging comes first, and antibiotics are not delayed. The nurse should raise this concern.
答案: D · Loss of skin reduces their ability to keep in heat
Burned skin loses heat and water through evaporation. Cooling the burn is limited to the wound, the rest of the patient is kept warm, and fluids and the environment are warmed.
答案: C · Capillary blood glucose
Destruction of islet cells in chronic pancreatitis can cause diabetes (type 3c). Thirst, polyuria and weight loss suggest hyperglycaemia, which is checked straight away.
答案: C · Report it and assess for postpartum pre-eclampsia
New hypertension with a headache after birth can be postpartum pre-eclampsia, even with normal readings in pregnancy. The nurse reports it, checks urine protein and symptoms and follows the protocol.
答案: B · Acute bilirubin encephalopathy
Lethargy, poor feeding, hypertonia with arching and a high-pitched cry are signs of acute bilirubin encephalopathy. An urgent exchange transfusion may be needed to prevent permanent kernicterus.
答案: C · 用压舌板检查咽喉
检查咽喉、让孩子躺下或使其惊恐都可能引发完全性气道梗阻。应让孩子保持平静和直立,并获得专家的气道援助。
答案: A · Arrange contact with friends and let him control parts of his daily routine
Adolescents are working on identity and independence, and peers are very important. Hospital stay threatens both, so contact with friends, privacy and choices about routines help him cope.
答案: B · Drink enough fluids and avoid overheating, because the medicine can affect temperature control
Antipsychotics, especially those with anticholinergic effects, can impair sweating and thermoregulation, increasing the risk of heat stroke. Hydration, shade and avoiding strenuous activity in the heat are advised.
答案: D · Carbamazepine can make the pill less effective, so she should discuss contraception with the prescriber
Carbamazepine induces liver enzymes and speeds up the breakdown of many drugs, including hormonal contraceptives. This can lead to unplanned pregnancy, and carbamazepine is also teratogenic.
答案: T = 36.4 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 200 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 162.8 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: V = 0.56 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 22.5 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1350 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 4.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 19:30 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 10
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 高风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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