感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
一名晚期痴呆患者无法描述自己的疼痛。应如何评估疼痛?
一名患者需要进行一次疼痛的换药。什么时候给予医嘱中的口服镇痛药最好?
患者在床上时,其病房里的垃圾桶起了小火。护士首先应做什么?
A patient with suspected sepsis has orders for blood cultures and an IV antibiotic. What is the correct order of actions?
Which action helps prevent a catheter-associated urinary tract infection?
A patient takes lithium. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which measure helps prevent delirium in older inpatients?
Which nursing measure helps reduce raised intracranial pressure?
Why is a baseline platelet count taken before starting heparin therapy?
一名患者 24 小时前大量过量服用对乙酰氨基酚(扑热息痛)。最预期出现哪些实验室改变?
哪项体征是阿片类药物中毒的典型表现?
A nurse gives 2 mg from a 4 mg ampoule of morphine. What should happen to the remaining 2 mg?
Why is pyridoxine (vitamin B6) often given with isoniazid?
An older inpatient develops sudden fever, muscle aches and a dry cough during the winter influenza season. Which plan is most appropriate?
Which action is part of an effective bowel programme after a spinal cord injury?
一名带有隧道式中心静脉导管的血液透析患者在透析开始后不久出现发热和寒战。护士应怀疑什么并如何处理?
Which statement about pain in older adults is correct?
A patient with a leg ulcer has an ABPI of 0.5. The doctor's plan mentions starting strong compression bandages. What should the nurse do?
A pregnant woman taking iron says her stools have turned black. What is the best response?
A woman received an opioid IV 30 minutes ago. The tracing now shows minimal variability but no decelerations. What is the most likely cause?
At about what age do most children understand that death is permanent and happens to everyone?
A child with extensive burns is receiving IV fluid resuscitation. Which finding best shows that fluid replacement is adequate?
哪一组表现提示抗精神病药恶性综合征?
A patient says, "I don't have a drinking problem. I only drink at weekends, like everyone else." He drinks heavily every weekend. Which approach fits his stage of change best?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 37.4 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 18:35 开始,到次日早晨 02:55 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
某患者体重 30 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 15 mg/kg,分 3 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方剂量为 520 微克。安瓿浓度为 4 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
100 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 9 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 50 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 13:30 时已输入 700 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 99%正在补充吸氧,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 82 次/分,清醒,体温 34.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: C · 使用对面部表情等行为评分的观察性疼痛工具
观察性工具对面部表情、发声、肢体语言和行为变化等征象评分。痴呆患者的疼痛常常被忽视。
答案: D · 在操作前足够早的时候给药,使其达到峰值效应
根据药物起效和达峰时间提前给予镇痛药,可以使镇痛在操作过程中发挥作用。这比疼痛开始后再处理更有效。
答案: D · 把患者从紧急危险中转移出来
首先是救援:把患者从火场转移开。然后拉响警报、关门控制火势,并在安全时灭火。打开窗户会给火焰提供氧气。
答案: C · Draw the blood cultures first, then give the antibiotic without delay
Cultures are drawn before the first antibiotic dose so the organism can still be grown and identified. The antibiotic is then given promptly, because delay increases the risk of death in sepsis.
答案: D · Keeping the drainage bag below the level of the bladder
Keeping the bag below the bladder prevents backflow, and the closed system is not broken. Catheters are removed as soon as they are no longer needed.
答案: D · “I will take ibuprofen every day for my headaches.”
NSAIDs such as ibuprofen can raise lithium levels and cause toxicity. Steady fluid and salt intake and regular blood tests help keep levels safe.
答案: C · Reorientation, glasses and hearing aids in use, and good sleep and hydration
Multicomponent prevention, including orientation, sensory aids, hydration, nutrition, mobility, sleep and avoiding unnecessary moves or drugs, reduces delirium.
答案: D · Raising the head of the bed to about 30° with the head kept midline
Head elevation and a midline neck position help venous drainage from the brain. Neck flexion, tight tube ties, coughing, straining and unnecessary suctioning can all raise intracranial pressure.
答案: D · So a later fall from heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is detected
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is diagnosed partly by a fall of about 50% or more from the baseline count, usually 5–14 days after starting. A baseline count and regular checks make this possible.核对依据: Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023)
答案: B · ALT 和 AST 非常高,INR 上升
中毒剂量损害肝细胞,因此 ALT 和 AST 急剧升高,肝衰竭使 INR 升高。乙酰半胱氨酸是解毒剂,早期给予效果最好。核对依据: Acetaminophen Toxicity · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)
答案: C · 针尖样瞳孔
阿片类药物中毒的典型表现是针尖样瞳孔、呼吸缓慢或浅表以及意识水平下降。纳洛酮可以逆转这些作用。
答案: A · It is discarded in front of a witness, and both sign the record
Unused controlled drugs are wasted in front of a witness according to policy, and both staff document the waste. This prevents diversion and keeps the stock count accurate.
答案: A · To prevent peripheral neuropathy
Isoniazid increases pyridoxine loss, which can cause peripheral neuropathy, especially in people with diabetes, alcohol dependence, malnutrition or HIV. Pyridoxine prevents this. Isoniazid can also cause hepatitis. Ethambutol affects vision; pyrazinamide can cause gout.
答案: C · Isolate with droplet precautions, test and expect early antivirals
Influenza spreads mainly by droplets and contact, so the patient is isolated with droplet precautions and tested. Antivirals such as oseltamivir work best if started early, ideally within 48 hours of symptoms, and are recommended for hospitalised and high-risk patients. Vaccination of staff and patients reduces outbreaks.
答案: D · A routine at the same time each day, often after a meal
A regular routine, timed after a meal to use the gastrocolic reflex, plus fluids, fibre and, often, suppositories or digital stimulation, helps prevent constipation and accidents. This also reduces the risk of autonomic dysreflexia.
答案: D · 导管相关血流感染;停止透析,采集培养并上报
通过中心静脉导管开始透析时出现发热和寒战,强烈提示导管相关血流感染。应按方案停止或调整透析,采集血培养(导管和外周),通知团队并按医嘱开始静脉抗生素。检查出口处。
答案: C · They may under-report pain, so active assessment is needed
Older adults may minimise pain or have cognitive or sensory problems that hinder reporting. Regular assessment with suitable tools and careful analgesia, starting low and adjusting slowly, are recommended.
答案: C · Withhold strong compression and discuss urgent vascular referral
An ABPI of 0.5 suggests severe arterial disease, and strong compression could cause limb ischaemia. The nurse raises the concern and the patient is referred to vascular specialists.
答案: C · Explain that this is an expected effect of iron
Iron supplements commonly make stools dark green or black. This is harmless, unlike tarry stools with signs of bleeding such as dizziness.
答案: A · The opioid's effect on the fetal brain
Opioids, magnesium sulfate and fetal sleep can temporarily reduce variability. Without decelerations, it is likely drug-related, but the tracing should be watched for return of variability.
答案: B · About 9 to 10 years
By about 9–10 years most children understand that death is irreversible, universal and has a biological cause. Younger children may see it as temporary or as a punishment.
答案: D · A urine output of about 1 mL/kg per hour
Urine output, usually measured by catheter, is the main guide to fluid resuscitation in burns. In children, an output of about 1 mL/kg/hour suggests adequate perfusion; fluids are adjusted to keep it in the target range.
答案: C · 高热、严重的“铅管样”肌强直、意识模糊、血压不稳和 CK 升高
抗精神病药恶性综合征通常在数日内发展,表现为高热、肌强直、意识改变、自主神经不稳和肌酸激酶升高。应停用抗精神病药并给予紧急医疗处理。
答案: D · Offer non-judgemental information and explore how drinking affects his life
In precontemplation, the aim is to raise awareness without confrontation, for example by giving personalised feedback and exploring the pros and cons. Action-focused plans fit later stages.
答案: T = 99.3 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: t = 500 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 150 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.13 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 14 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:14 滴/分。
答案: D = 60 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: U = 1.96 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 16:00 输完。
答案: MFS = 110
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
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