感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient has just died. What should the nurse find out before starting last offices?
Why should only the patient press the button of a patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) pump?
How should a newborn be moved through hospital corridors?
一名护士给错了患者药物。患者看起来状况良好。首要任务是什么?
对护理助理的哪项指示最清楚?
An infant with pyloric stenosis has repeated projectile vomiting. Which acid-base imbalance is most likely?
Modern wound care generally aims to keep a healing wound bed:
一名术后患者心率 115 次/分,体温 38.6 °C,呼吸 26 次/分,快速补液后血压仍为 85/50 mmHg。这最可能提示什么?
Which change in clotting tests is normal in late pregnancy?
A patient on high-dose dexamethasone has a white cell count of 15 × 10³/µL, mostly mature neutrophils with no bands. They have no fever and no signs of infection. What is the most likely explanation?
氯吡格雷如何减少血小板聚集?
Which finding most favours serotonin syndrome over neuroleptic malignant syndrome?
A patient with bronchiectasis of the right lower lobe is taught postural drainage. How should they be positioned?
The stump of a recent below-knee amputation suddenly bleeds heavily through the dressing. What should the nurse do first?
卒中静脉溶栓前,通常采用哪个血压限值?
A patient is being assessed for brain death (brainstem death). Which condition must be excluded before testing?
A day after a spinal anaesthetic, a patient has a headache that is worse when sitting up and better when lying flat. What is the most likely cause?
哪条安全规则适用于长春新碱?
阴道分娩后约 12 小时,宫底通常位于何处?
产程中胎膜刚破裂,一名女性突然变得非常气促、发绀和低血压。应怀疑哪种情况?
The parents of a 2-year-old worry that she eats much less than she did as a baby. She is growing along her centile. What should the nurse advise?
A family with a 2-year-old has a swimming pool in the garden. Which measure gives the most protection against drowning?
Which treatment is recommended first-line for chronic insomnia in adults?
A 30-year-old who used cocaine an hour ago has crushing chest pain and sweating. What is the priority?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 39.6 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1½ fl oz / 果汁, 1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, ¾ 杯 / 茶, 1 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 60 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 5 mg/kg,分 3 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
你需要用 25%(w/v)储备液配制 250 mL 5%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 2 小时内输入 1000 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 460 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 11:00 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 60 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 6,其中 E2 和 V2。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: B · The family's religious and cultural wishes
Some faiths have specific rules, for example about who may touch or wash the body and how soon burial should happen. Asking first respects the person and the family.
答案: A · A drowsy patient stops pressing, which helps prevent overdose
If the patient becomes too sleepy they cannot press the button, so no more opioid is given. When others press it this safety is lost and respiratory depression can follow.
答案: C · In a bassinet, not carried in the arms
Infants are moved in a bassinet through corridors. This prevents drops and makes abduction easier to spot, because carrying a baby in the arms in a hallway is unusual.
答案: D · 评估患者并监测药物的影响
首要任务是患者安全:评估、监测并通知开医嘱者,由其决定是否治疗。随后通过医院的系统上报差错,并按规定告知患者。
答案: D · “10:00 测李先生的血压,如果收缩压低于 100,立即告诉我。”
最好的指示确切说明做什么、何时做,以及哪些数值必须立即报告。其他指示让助理去猜什么才重要。
答案: A · Metabolic alkalosis
Repeated vomiting of stomach contents loses hydrochloric acid, causing metabolic alkalosis, often with low chloride and potassium. Fluids and electrolytes are corrected before surgery.
答案: A · Moist but not wet
A moist wound environment speeds epithelial cell migration and healing. Too much moisture causes maceration, so dressings are chosen to manage exudate.
答案: A · 需要危重症团队紧急评估的感染性休克
感染征象伴补液无反应的低血压提示感染性休克。除抗生素和感染源控制外,很可能还需要血管活性药物和危重症团队介入。
答案: B · Fibrinogen and D-dimer rise
Pregnancy increases clotting factors and fibrinogen and raises the D-dimer, which helps prevent bleeding at delivery but raises the risk of clots. Because D-dimer is normally raised, it is less useful for excluding DVT in pregnancy.核对依据: D-dimer Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · A steroid effect that moves neutrophils into the circulating blood
Corticosteroids raise the neutrophil count by releasing marginated neutrophils and slowing their exit from the blood, usually without a left shift. The nurse still assesses carefully, because steroids can also hide the usual signs of infection.
答案: A · 阻断血小板上的 ADP 受体 P2Y12
氯吡格雷在肝脏中被激活,不可逆地阻断血小板上的 P2Y12 ADP 受体。心肌梗死或支架植入后,它常与阿司匹林联用。
答案: C · Rapid onset with hyperreflexia and clonus
Serotonin syndrome develops within hours of a serotonergic drug and causes clonus, hyperreflexia, agitation, dilated pupils and diarrhoea. NMS develops over days after a dopamine antagonist, with lead-pipe rigidity and slow reflexes.
答案: D · With the affected lobe uppermost so gravity drains it
Postural drainage places the patient so the affected segment is above the main bronchus, letting gravity move secretions towards the larger airways to be coughed up. It is combined with breathing techniques. Head-down positions are avoided in patients with reflux, recent surgery or breathlessness.
答案: A · Apply firm direct pressure and call for urgent surgical help
Haemorrhage from a stump needs immediate direct pressure, elevation if appropriate, and urgent surgical help. A tourniquet should be available as policy directs. Vital signs are monitored for shock.
答案: A · 低于约 185/110 mmHg
许多指南要求溶栓前血压低于 185/110 mmHg,溶栓后 24 小时内低于 180/105 mmHg,因为血压过高会增加出血性转化的风险。读数更高时应先谨慎降压。
答案: B · Effects of sedative drugs or severe hypothermia
Before brain death (brainstem) testing, reversible causes of coma must be excluded, including sedatives and neuromuscular blockers, hypothermia, and severe metabolic or endocrine disturbance. Only then can absent reflexes be interpreted reliably.
答案: D · Post-dural puncture headache
CSF leaking through the dural puncture lowers pressure and causes a positional headache. Fluids, simple analgesia and caffeine may help, and the anaesthetist is informed; an epidural blood patch is sometimes needed.
答案: C · 绝不能鞘内给药;以小袋装供静脉专用
鞘内注射长春新碱几乎总是致命的。为防止给药途径错误,它被稀释在小袋中供静脉使用,标注“仅供静脉使用,其他途径给药可致命”,并与鞘内药物分开存放。
答案: C · 质硬,居中线,约平脐
宫底在最初 12 小时内上升至约平脐,然后每天下降约 1 cm(一横指)。到约 2 周时,通常在耻骨联合上方已摸不到。
答案: D · 羊水栓塞
羊水栓塞引起突发呼吸困难、缺氧、低血压,并常因凝血功能障碍而出血。这是急症:呼叫急救团队,并根据需要开始复苏。
答案: A · Appetite falls as growth slows; offer small, healthy portions without pressure
Growth slows after the first year, so toddlers often eat less (sometimes called physiological anorexia). Offering small portions, regular meals and snacks and avoiding battles over food is advised; too much milk can reduce appetite and cause iron deficiency.
答案: D · A four-sided fence with a self-closing, self-latching gate, plus constant supervision
Isolation fencing that fully separates the pool from the house and garden, combined with active adult supervision, is the most effective protection. Flotation aids and lessons do not replace supervision, and toddlers cannot reliably follow safety rules.
答案: B · Cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I)
CBT-I combines sleep education, stimulus control, sleep restriction and work on unhelpful beliefs about sleep. It has lasting effects and fewer risks than long-term sleeping tablets.
答案: A · Treat it as a possible heart attack, with an urgent ECG and medical review
Cocaine can cause coronary vasospasm, myocardial infarction and arrhythmias, even in young people without heart disease. Chest pain after cocaine use needs urgent cardiac assessment.
答案: T = 103.3 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 245 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 100 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V₁ = 50 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: Δ = 15 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: I = 1220 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 16 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 16 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 03:00 输完。
答案: M = 2
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 低风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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