感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient with right-sided weakness is moving from bed to chair. Where should the chair be placed?
某患者的氧饱和度目标为 88–92%。哪种疾病最可能解释这个较低的目标?
对于采取接触传播预防的患者,下列哪种设备使用方法是正确的?
A chemical cloud has been released near the hospital, and authorities order “shelter in place”. What should staff do?
A nurse teaches a patient who uses crutches. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient admitted with a stroke this morning asks for a glass of water. What should the nurse do first?
Why are patients with atrial fibrillation often given anticoagulants?
A patient with several days of vomiting and diarrhoea has low blood pressure, low urine output and a rising creatinine. Which description fits best?
一名因房颤服用华法林的患者 INR 为 5.2,无出血。护士最好的措施是什么?
一名服用阿哌沙班的患者问,为什么他不需要像服用华法林的邻居那样定期做 INR 检查。最好的解释是什么?
A patient starting niacin (nicotinic acid) complains of flushing and warmth after doses. Which advice may reduce this?
A patient with Parkinson's disease has nausea. Why should metoclopramide be avoided?
哪些特征最能描述动脉性下肢溃疡?
A patient has been on continuous NIV via a full-face mask for two days. Which nursing measure helps prevent the most common complication?
A patient with type 1 diabetes plans a long cycle ride. Which advice is most appropriate?
After a stroke, a patient suddenly cries or laughs at odd moments. They say they do not feel sad. Which response is most appropriate?
严重急性胰腺炎时可能出现哪种电解质问题?
开始治疗高级别淋巴瘤的化疗两天后,一名患者尿量减少;血钾 6.4 mmol/L,磷酸盐高,钙低。护士应怀疑什么并如何处理?
A woman at 20 weeks says her gums bleed when she brushes her teeth. What is the best advice?
一名正在输注硫酸镁的产妇呼吸频率为 10 次/分,膝腱反射消失。护士应首先怎么做?
How is urine output measured in an infant wearing nappies?
A 15-year-old with cystic fibrosis has stopped doing her daily physiotherapy. What is the best approach?
A patient says, "The doctor says I'm getting better, but I don't think anyone here really knows me." Which nurse response is most therapeutic?
A 10-year-old eats only a few foods and refuses others because he fears choking after a frightening episode. He is losing weight but has no concerns about body shape. Which diagnosis fits best?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 102.5 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 21:05 开始,到次日早晨 03:45 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一支肾上腺素预充式注射器标示为 1:10 000(0.1 mg/mL)。医嘱为心脏骤停时 0.1 mg 静脉注射(IV)。你应给多少体积 V?
你需要用 50%(w/v)储备液配制 500 mL 0.5%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
滴注以 30 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 3 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
200 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 3 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 07:15 开始用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 08:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 86%吸室内空气,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 64 次/分,清醒,体温 38.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: D · On the patient's left side, close to the bed
Placing the chair on the strong side lets the patient pivot and bear weight on the stronger leg, making the transfer safer.
答案: B · 有高碳酸血症风险的慢阻肺(COPD)
对于有高碳酸性呼吸衰竭风险的慢阻肺患者,给氧过多可能使 CO₂ 升高,因此采用 88–92% 的目标。
答案: C · 为该患者专用听诊器和血压袖带
听诊器、袖带等非关键设备应专用于该患者,或在用于其他患者之前进行清洁和消毒。
答案: C · Keep everyone inside, close windows and doors and shut off outside air intake
Sheltering in place keeps people inside, away from the hazard. Windows and doors are closed and ventilation systems that bring in outside air are shut off until the all-clear.
答案: A · “I will lean on the crutch pads under my arms to rest.”
Leaning on the axillary pads can compress the nerves in the armpit. Weight should be taken through the hands, and the home should be made safe from trip hazards.
答案: C · Check that a swallow screen has been done before giving anything by mouth
After a stroke, the patient stays NPO (nothing by mouth) until a swallow screen shows it is safe. Giving fluids first risks aspiration, even with a straw or thickener.
答案: A · To reduce the risk of stroke from clots in the atria
In AF the atria do not contract effectively, so blood can pool and clot, especially in the left atrial appendage. A clot can travel to the brain, so anticoagulation reduces stroke risk.
答案: B · Pre-renal acute kidney injury from poor perfusion, treated by restoring fluid volume
Fluid loss reduces kidney perfusion, causing pre-renal AKI. Prompt fluid replacement can restore function before the kidney tissue itself is damaged.
答案: B · 暂停华法林剂量并通知开医嘱者
INR 5.2 远高于目标,会增加出血风险。护士应暂停该剂量,检查有无出血迹象并通知开医嘱者,后者可能开较低剂量或维生素 K。
答案: A · 它的作用可预测,所以不需要常规凝血检查
阿哌沙班等直接口服抗凝药在固定剂量下作用可预测,因此不需要常规 INR 检测。应监测肾功能和肝功能、依从性以及出血征象,而 INR 不能可靠地反映其作用。
答案: D · Take aspirin 30 minutes before the niacin, if the prescriber agrees
Niacin causes prostaglandin-mediated vasodilation and flushing. Aspirin beforehand, taking it with food and avoiding hot drinks and alcohol reduce this effect.
答案: C · It blocks dopamine receptors in the brain and can worsen the parkinsonism
Metoclopramide crosses the blood–brain barrier and antagonises D2 receptors. In Parkinson's disease this worsens rigidity and bradykinesia, so antiemetics that do not block central dopamine receptors are preferred.
答案: C · 脚趾上疼痛、苍白、边缘整齐如凿的溃疡,足部脉搏减弱
动脉性溃疡由缺血引起:深、边界清楚、苍白或坏死且疼痛,位于脚趾、足跟或受压点,周围皮肤发凉、无毛,脉搏减弱。内踝附近浅表潮湿的溃疡是静脉性的,伴胼胝的无痛性足底溃疡通常是神经病变性(糖尿病)的。
答案: C · Check mask fit and protect the bridge of the nose
Pressure injury over the bridge of the nose is common with NIV masks. Correctly sized masks, avoiding overtightening (allowing a small gap under the straps), protective dressings and regular skin checks reduce it. Other problems include eye irritation, dryness and gastric distension.
答案: A · Check glucose before and after, and carry fast-acting carbohydrate
Exercise increases glucose uptake and insulin sensitivity, so hypos can occur during and for hours after activity. Checking glucose, carrying carbohydrate and, if advised, adjusting insulin or food reduce the risk.
答案: C · Explain that this is emotional lability after stroke and help the family understand
Emotional lability (pseudobulbar affect) is common after stroke: crying or laughter does not match the person's mood. Explaining it, staying calm and gently distracting the patient helps. True depression is also common and should be screened for separately.
答案: C · 低钙血症
脂肪坏死释放脂肪酸,与钙结合(皂化),使血清钙降低。低钙血症是严重程度的标志,可引起手足抽搐和心律失常。而高钙血症则可能是胰腺炎的病因。
答案: B · 肿瘤溶解综合征:上报,开始心电监护,并预期静脉补液
快速生长的癌症开始治疗后出现高钾、高磷、低钙和尿量减少,提示肿瘤溶解综合征伴 AKI。需要紧急评估、心电监护、静脉补液、治疗高钾血症、按医嘱使用拉布立酶,可能还需要透析。
答案: D · Use a soft brush and keep up routine dental care
Gum swelling and bleeding are common because of oestrogen-related vascular changes. Good oral hygiene and routine dental care are safe and recommended in pregnancy.
答案: B · 停止输注并紧急通知医疗人员,同时备好葡萄糖酸钙
呼吸抑制和反射消失提示镁中毒。应停止输注,支持呼吸,寻求帮助,检测镁水平,并按医嘱备好葡萄糖酸钙。
答案: D · Weigh the wet nappy and subtract the dry weight; 1 g is about 1 mL
Weighing nappies before and after use gives an accurate measure of urine output, as 1 g of urine is about 1 mL. This is important in sick infants to calculate output in mL/kg/hour.
答案: C · Explore her reasons and plan treatment with her that fits her daily life
Adherence often falls in adolescence as young people seek independence and normality. Exploring barriers, involving the teenager in decisions, setting goals together and fitting treatment around school and friends work better than threats.
答案: D · "You feel that people here don't really know you?"
Reflecting the patient's concern invites them to explore it. Defending the doctor, reassuring falsely or asking "why" all close the conversation down.
答案: B · Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID)
ARFID involves avoiding or restricting food because of sensory features, lack of interest or fear of consequences such as choking, leading to weight loss or nutritional problems. Unlike anorexia, there is no disturbance in body image.
答案: T = 39.2 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: t = 6.67 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 1 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V₁ = 5 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: V = 270 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 40 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: B = 625 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 375 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 17
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
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