感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a liquid medicine be measured in a medicine cup?
一名 70 kg、留置导尿管的术后患者在过去三小时内每小时尿量为 20 mL。最佳的解读是什么?
Where is a gait belt placed when helping a patient to walk?
A nurse finds an unknown liquid leaking from a container in the utility room, with a strong smell. What should the nurse do first?
一名护理助理报告说某患者的血压是 168/98 mmHg(早些时候是 130/80),且患者头痛。RN 应怎么做?
A child is admitted with a suspected Wilms tumor (nephroblastoma). Which instruction is most important for all staff?
Why is an urgent brain scan needed before thrombolysis for a suspected stroke?
A patient on metformin with reduced kidney function is due a CT scan with IV contrast. Why might metformin be withheld?
When do the blood counts usually reach their lowest point (nadir) after many standard chemotherapy regimens?
收到四项实验室结果。护士应首先处理哪一项?
Which assessment is most important during IV mannitol therapy?
A patient taking co-trimoxazole develops fever, a spreading blistering rash and painful mouth sores. What is the most likely diagnosis?
Which side effect is particularly common with verapamil?
一名服用比索洛尔和地尔硫䓬的患者头晕,心率 38 次/分,血压 82/50 mmHg。最恰当的首要应对是什么?
A patient with gout has recurrent uric acid kidney stones. Which treatment helps prevent them?
一名甲状腺功能减退患者已数周未服药,入院时体温过低、嗜睡,脉搏 46 次/分,血钠偏低,PaCO₂ 升高。最可能的诊断是什么?
Which advice has good evidence for reducing cancer-related fatigue?
A nurse teaches a patient with GORD. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which antihypertensive is commonly used in pregnancy but should be avoided in a woman with asthma?
一名有剖宫产史、尝试阴道分娩的女性突然出现剧烈腹痛,胎心率急剧下降,且摸不到先露部。最可能的是什么?
Which statement about patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) for a child is correct?
Which child on the renal ward should the nurse assess first?
Which finding in a patient with anorexia nervosa is most concerning?
A patient tells the nurse, "You're the only one I can talk to. You're much better than the other nurses." What is the most appropriate response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 101.2 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血清肌酐结果为 2.2 mg/dL。按肌酐 1 mg/dL = 88.4 µmol/L,求以 µmol/L 表示的c,取到最接近的整数。
一名体重 17 kg 的儿童按 10 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 122 cm,体重 28 kg。医嘱为 25 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 980 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1000 mL。3 小时后你发现袋中还剩 960 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 10:00 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 125 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 32 次/分,SpO₂ 89%正在补充吸氧,血压 142/86 mmHg,脉搏 132 次/分,清醒,体温 37.4 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 121 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
答案: C · At eye level, reading the lowest point of the curved surface
The cup is placed on a flat surface and read at eye level at the bottom of the meniscus. An oral syringe is more accurate for small volumes.
答案: D · 少尿,应予上报,因为低于 0.5 mL/kg/h
对 70 kg 的成人来说,0.5 mL/kg/h 即 35 mL/h。连续数小时尿量 20 mL/h 提示肾灌注不良或急性肾损伤。应检查导尿管并上报。
答案: C · Around the patient’s waist, over clothing
The gait belt goes snugly around the waist over clothing, close to the center of gravity, with room for the nurse’s fingers underneath. Holding it gives control without pulling on the arms.
答案: A · Leave the area, keep others out and alert the trained response team
An unknown chemical spill may be toxic or flammable. The nurse moves people away, prevents entry and calls the designated hazardous materials team, who check the Safety Data Sheet and use the right equipment.
答案: C · 评估患者,复测血压,并寻找症状
血压突然升高并伴有头痛是 RN 必须评估的变化。等待一小时会延误护理,而辅助人员不发药,也不决定治疗。
答案: D · Do not palpate the abdomen
Palpating a Wilms tumor can rupture the capsule and spread cancer cells. A sign is often put on the bed to warn staff not to palpate the abdomen.
答案: B · To rule out bleeding in the brain
A CT scan distinguishes haemorrhagic from ischaemic stroke. Clot-busting drugs are only given when bleeding has been excluded and other criteria are met.
答案: D · There is a risk of lactic acidosis if kidney function worsens
Iodinated contrast can worsen kidney function, and metformin can then accumulate and cause lactic acidosis. Local policy guides when to stop and restart it.
答案: B · About 7–14 days after treatment
Chemotherapy damages dividing marrow cells, but mature neutrophils and platelets already in the blood survive for a while, so counts usually fall to a nadir about 7–14 days later, depending on the drug. Infection and bleeding risks are highest then.
答案: B · 一名 CKD 患者钾 6.6 mEq/L,新出现肌无力
钾 6.6 mEq/L 伴肌无力可引起危及生命的心律失常。护士应立即安排心电监护并通知医疗人员。CKD 的轻度贫血和餐后血糖轻度升高是预期的;钠正常。
答案: A · Urine output, electrolytes and signs of fluid overload
Mannitol draws fluid into the circulation before it is excreted, which can cause heart failure and pulmonary oedema. The large diuresis can cause dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, so output and electrolytes are monitored.
答案: B · Stevens–Johnson syndrome; stop the drug and get urgent medical care
Stevens–Johnson syndrome is a severe drug reaction with skin blistering and mucosal involvement. Sulfonamides are a common cause, and the drug must be stopped immediately.
答案: C · Constipation
Verapamil is a rate-limiting calcium channel blocker that slows AV conduction. Constipation is its most common side effect. It can also cause bradycardia and should not be combined with beta-blockers without specialist care because of the risk of heart block.
答案: B · 呼叫紧急援助,进行 ABCDE 评估,并连接心脏监护仪
β 受体阻滞剂和减慢心率的钙通道阻滞剂对窦房结和房室结有叠加作用。伴有低血压的症状性心动过缓是急症:呼叫援助、监护、暂停这些药物,并按心动过缓流程预期使用阿托品,可能还需要起搏。
答案: B · Allopurinol and making the urine less acidic
Uric acid stones form when urine is acidic and rich in uric acid. High fluid intake, alkalinising the urine (for example with potassium citrate) and allopurinol reduce the risk. Purine-rich foods are limited.
答案: B · 黏液性水肿昏迷
黏液性水肿昏迷表现为意识下降、体温过低、心动过缓、通气不足、低钠血症和低血糖,常由感染或漏服药物诱发。需要重症监护,静脉给予甲状腺激素,在排除肾上腺功能不全前给予类固醇覆盖,被动复温,并对镇静药格外谨慎。
答案: B · Regular light to moderate activity, such as walking
Exercise, matched to ability, reduces cancer-related fatigue. Pacing, prioritising activities, sleep routines and treating causes such as anaemia or depression also help.
答案: C · "Peppermint tea after dinner will settle my reflux."
Peppermint can relax the lower oesophageal sphincter and may worsen reflux. Weight loss, stopping smoking and avoiding personal triggers are standard lifestyle measures.
答案: D · Labetalol
Labetalol is a beta and alpha blocker and can cause bronchospasm, so it is avoided in asthma. Nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker, is often used instead.
答案: C · 子宫破裂
突发疼痛、胎儿心动过缓和先露位置消失是子宫破裂的典型征象,这种情况罕见但危及生命,需要立即手术。
答案: A · Only the child presses the button, unless a protocol says otherwise
PCA is safe because a sedated child stops pressing the button. If others press it ("PCA by proxy") this safety is lost, risking overdose. Nurse- or parent-controlled analgesia is only used under specific protocols with extra monitoring.
答案: D · A 7-year-old with glomerulonephritis who has a severe headache and blurred vision
Severe headache and visual disturbance in glomerulonephritis suggest hypertensive encephalopathy, which can lead to seizures. The other children are stable or improving.
答案: C · A resting heart rate of 38/min
Severe bradycardia suggests cardiovascular compromise from starvation and can lead to dangerous arrhythmias. It is a common reason for urgent medical admission.
答案: B · "I'm glad our talks help. All the staff here are working with you, and it's important that you can talk to them too."
Accepting the role of the "only" helper encourages dependence and splitting. The nurse acknowledges the patient's feeling and encourages trust in the whole team, which keeps care consistent.
答案: T = 38.4 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: c = 194 µmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 6.8 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 24.35 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 98 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 28 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
这超过了 25% 的增幅:大多数医院要求你联系开医嘱者,而不是加快补输,并评估患者是否存在液体过多。
答案: I = 2150 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 8.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 8 h 43 min,所以袋子大约在 18:43 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 11
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: DBP = 37 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
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