感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
下列哪个患者目标是按 SMART 原则书写的?
A patient's potassium result is 6.8 mmol/L (6.8 mEq/L). Why is this urgent?
“Tall Man”大写字母标注法(如 hydrOXYzine 和 hydrALAZINE)的目的是什么?
一名意识混乱、戴着腕部约束带的患者,一只手的手指发凉、苍白,该侧桡动脉搏动减弱。护士首先应做什么?
Several patients on a gastroenterology unit need care. Which patient should the nurse see first?
A child who had a tonsillectomy this morning is swallowing again and again while asleep. What should the nurse suspect?
A patient is started on spironolactone while already taking an ACE inhibitor. Which blood result should be watched most closely?
Why might a patient with diabetes who takes a beta-blocker not notice hypoglycaemia early?
A patient on peritoneal dialysis notices that the drained fluid is cloudy and has abdominal pain. What should the nurse do?
A patient has a sodium of 150 mEq/L, a glucose of 180 mg/dL and a BUN of 28 mg/dL. Using the formula 2 × Na + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8, what is the calculated serum osmolality?
Which patient should usually not use the combined oral contraceptive pill?
A patient on simvastatin is prescribed gemfibrozil. What is the main concern?
A patient with COPD uses an inhaled corticosteroid combination inhaler. Which risk should the nurse be aware of?
A ventilated patient suddenly desaturates to 82%. The cause is not obvious and the ventilator alarms are sounding. What should the nurse do first?
Before a haemodialysis catheter is used, why is the lock solution withdrawn from each lumen?
A patient with suspected meningitis has a GCS of 9 and pupils that have become unequal. A doctor plans an immediate lumbar puncture. What is the main concern?
Before an anti-TNF biologic such as infliximab is started for Crohn's disease, which screening is essential?
A patient with small cell lung cancer is confused and drowsy. Sodium is 118 mmol/L and the urine is highly concentrated. Which complication is likely?
Why is mild anaemia common in the second trimester even in healthy women?
Fluid leaking from the vagina is tested. Which result supports rupture of the membranes?
How should a 3-year-old use a metered-dose inhaler?
A baby born to a mother who used opioids in pregnancy has a high-pitched cry, tremors, sneezing and poor feeding. Which plan is best?
哪项原则适用于身体约束的使用?
A patient with borderline personality disorder says, "If you don't make Anna my nurse again tomorrow, I'll cut myself." What is the most appropriate response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 103.9 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 1 fl oz / 果汁, 1 杯 / 茶。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 26 kg 的儿童按 2 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 12.5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 250 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 3 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 20 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 90 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 11:30 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 200 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 无损害; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。使用的分级为:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度,13–14 中度,10–12 高,9 或以下极高。点击风险等级。
答案: B · 患者将在周五前借助助行架行走 20 米
SMART 目标明确说明期望什么、如何衡量以及在什么时间之前完成。"周五前借助助行架行走 20 米"可以核查;"感觉好一些"则不能。
答案: C · Very high potassium can cause life-threatening heart arrhythmias
Severe hyperkalaemia can cause cardiac arrest. The result is escalated at once; an ECG and treatment follow, and a repeat sample checks whether the result was falsely raised.
答案: A · 使外观相似的药名更容易区分
Tall Man 标注法把相似药名中不同的字母用大写表示,使工作人员在阅读标签、屏幕和医嘱时能注意到差异。
答案: B · 松开该侧约束带并评估手部的血液循环
约束带远端出现循环不良的征象,需要立即松开并评估。只有在仍有必要时才正确重新系上,并用两指检查法确认,同时上报并记录发现。
答案: D · Two hours after a colonoscopy: rigid abdomen and severe new pain
A rigid abdomen with severe pain after colonoscopy suggests bowel perforation and peritonitis, a surgical emergency. The other patients have stable, chronic or routine needs.
答案: B · Bleeding from the operation site
Frequent swallowing after tonsillectomy is a classic sign of bleeding. The nurse checks the throat with a light, looks at vital signs and reports at once.
答案: B · Potassium, because both drugs can raise it
Spironolactone and ACE inhibitors both reduce potassium excretion, so the combination can cause dangerous hyperkalaemia. Potassium and renal function should be checked regularly.
答案: B · Beta-blockers can mask warning signs such as tremor and a fast heart rate
Tremor, palpitations and anxiety in hypoglycaemia are driven by the sympathetic system, which beta-blockers blunt. Sweating is often still present, and patients need to monitor glucose closely.
答案: C · Send the fluid for cell count and culture and report it
Cloudy effluent with abdominal pain suggests peritonitis, the main serious complication of peritoneal dialysis. A sample is sent for white cell count, Gram stain and culture, and antibiotics (often given in the dialysis fluid) are started as prescribed.
答案: D · About 320 mOsm/kg, which is high
Osmolality = 300 + 10 + 10 = 320 mOsm/kg, above the typical range of about 275–295 mOsm/kg. The high sodium is the main cause, which points to water loss or too little water intake.
答案: A · A 38-year-old woman who smokes 20 cigarettes a day
Smoking over the age of 35 greatly increases the risk of myocardial infarction and stroke with combined hormonal contraception. Progestogen-only or non-hormonal methods are preferred.
答案: A · A much higher risk of myopathy and rhabdomyolysis
Gemfibrozil reduces statin clearance and adds its own muscle toxicity. The combination greatly increases the risk of rhabdomyolysis and is generally avoided.
答案: D · An increased risk of pneumonia
In COPD, inhaled corticosteroids increase the risk of pneumonia. They are used where there are frequent exacerbations or features of asthma, and their benefit is weighed against this risk. Signs of pneumonia should be reported promptly.
答案: B · Disconnect and hand-ventilate with 100% oxygen while calling for help
When a ventilated patient deteriorates suddenly, bag-valve ventilation with 100% oxygen takes the ventilator out of the picture. The nurse then checks for displacement, obstruction, pneumothorax and equipment failure (often remembered as DOPE) and calls for senior help.
答案: C · It contains concentrated anticoagulant
Dialysis catheter lumens are filled with a concentrated heparin or citrate lock. If it is flushed into the patient, it can cause bleeding or other effects. Catheters are usually accessed only by trained staff.
答案: B · Raised pressure in the skull, so the procedure could cause herniation
Reduced consciousness and unequal pupils suggest raised ICP. A lumbar puncture in this situation may cause brain herniation, so imaging comes first, and antibiotics are not delayed. The nurse should raise this concern.
答案: D · Screening for tuberculosis
Anti-TNF drugs suppress immunity and can reactivate latent tuberculosis. Patients are screened for TB and hepatitis B before starting and are taught to report signs of infection.
答案: D · SIADH
Small cell lung cancer can secrete ADH, causing water retention, dilutional hyponatraemia and inappropriately concentrated urine. Management includes fluid restriction and careful correction of sodium to avoid osmotic demyelination.
答案: C · Plasma volume rises more than red cell mass
Plasma volume increases more than red cell mass, so haemoglobin concentration falls (physiological or dilutional anaemia). Iron deficiency can add to this and should still be checked.
答案: D · A ferning pattern on a dried slide under the microscope
Amniotic fluid forms a fern-like pattern when dried and turns nitrazine paper blue because it is alkaline. Vaginal secretions and urine are usually acidic. Blood, semen and infection can give false positives on nitrazine testing.
答案: C · With a spacer and face mask, taking several normal breaths after each puff
Young children need a spacer with a well-fitting face mask. One puff is given at a time, and the child breathes normally for several breaths (often 5–10) to inhale the medicine. Several puffs at once reduce the dose delivered.
答案: D · Low-stimulation care, swaddling, small frequent feeds and a withdrawal scoring tool
Neonatal abstinence (withdrawal) is managed first with calm, low-stimulation care, swaddling, frequent feeds and support for parents, with regular scoring to guide any drug treatment. Naloxone is avoided because it can trigger acute withdrawal and seizures.
答案: A · 这是限制较少的措施失败后的最后手段,需密切监测,并在安全时尽快解除
仅在降级处理失败后,为防止迫在眉睫的伤害,并依照法律和政策才使用约束。应持续监测患者的呼吸、循环和健康状况,并记录一切。
答案: C · Take the statement seriously, assess her risk and explain that nursing assignments are decided by the team
Every threat of self-harm needs assessment, but giving in to it reinforces the behaviour and supports splitting. The nurse addresses safety and feelings while keeping consistent team boundaries.
答案: T = 39.9 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 275 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 5.2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 2 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: t = 2.5 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 1.67 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 6.6 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 6 h 36 min,所以袋子大约在 18:06 输完。
答案: MFS = 85
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 无风险
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
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