感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient arrives back on the ward after surgery. What does the nurse assess first?
Eight hours after surgery a patient has not passed urine and has lower abdominal discomfort with a swelling above the pubic bone. What should the nurse do?
When should blood specimen tubes be labeled?
Which patient with a suspected infection meets the qSOFA criteria that signal a higher risk of a poor outcome?
交班后,护士应首先看哪位患者?
A dehydrated child is to receive IV fluids with added potassium. Which finding should the nurse confirm first?
A patient who injects drugs has a fever, a new heart murmur and small dark lines under the nails. What is the likely diagnosis?
A severely hypothermic patient is in cardiac arrest. Why is resuscitation usually continued until they are rewarmed?
A patient has macrocytic anemia with numbness and tingling of the feet and poor balance. Which deficiency is most likely?
An older adult with type 2 diabetes is drowsy and very dehydrated. Glucose 920 mg/dL (51 mmol/L), serum osmolality 350 mOsm/kg, pH 7.36, urine ketones negative or trace. Which condition fits best?
During adult cardiac arrest, how often is IV adrenaline (epinephrine) usually repeated?
A patient with epilepsy needs pain relief. Why is tramadol used with caution?
A patient with heart failure is comfortable at rest but becomes breathless walking across a room. Which NYHA class fits best?
After a car crash, a patient is severely breathless with absent breath sounds on the right, a deviated trachea, distended neck veins and BP 76/40 mmHg. What is the immediate management?
Which measure best detects a decline in breathing in a patient with Guillain–Barré syndrome?
一名老年 2 型糖尿病患者血糖 48 mmol/L,渗透压 365 mOsm/kg,无明显酮体,意识混乱。首要任务是什么?
对病情稳定的消化道出血患者,哪种红细胞输血策略符合目前的证据?
拔除硬膜外导管数小时后,一名使用抗凝药的患者出现背痛和逐渐加重的腿部无力。应怀疑什么?
Which statement describes the "4 Ts" causes of postpartum haemorrhage?
A woman had a classical (vertical upper-segment) caesarean in her last pregnancy. She asks about her plan for this birth. Which answer is accurate?
新生儿的哪项发现提示先天性巨结肠?
How is pain best assessed in a 10-year-old with severe cerebral palsy who cannot speak?
Which communication approach is best for a patient with moderate dementia?
A man with gambling disorder has lost his savings and has large debts. He tells the nurse, "My family would be better off without me." What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 95 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 8 fl oz / 果汁, 3 tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 80 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 15 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一名患者身高 115 cm,体重 39 kg。医嘱为 250 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 1500 mL。8 小时后你发现袋中还剩 380 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一袋中含有 4 g 药物,溶于 500 mL。医嘱为每分钟 2 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 60 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 07:00 开始用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 12:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 97%正在补充吸氧,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 140 次/分,清醒,体温 37.0 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 97%吸室内空气,血压 118/70 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,无反应,体温 36.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: B · Airway and breathing
After anaesthesia the airway and breathing are checked first, then circulation, consciousness, pain, the wound, drains and fluids.
答案: C · Check the bladder volume with a scanner and report the findings
These signs suggest postoperative urinary retention. A bladder scan confirms the volume, and the doctor is told so it can be relieved, often by catheterisation.
答案: B · At the bedside, in front of the patient, right after collection
Labeling tubes at the bedside, using two patient identifiers and in the patient’s presence, prevents wrong-patient specimens. Pre-labeled or later-labeled tubes are easily mixed up.
答案: C · Respiratory rate 24/min, new confusion, systolic BP 95 mmHg
qSOFA scores one point each for a respiratory rate of 22/min or more, altered mental status and a systolic BP of 100 mmHg or less. Two or more points mean higher risk, so the first patient needs urgent escalation.
答案: B · 一名哮喘患者,使用辅助呼吸肌,SpO₂ 为 88%
哮喘患者使用辅助呼吸肌且 SpO₂ 低,显示急性呼吸窘迫,这是呼吸问题。血糖升高、中度疼痛以及已在处理的发热都是真实存在的,但紧急程度较低。
答案: C · That the child is passing urine
Potassium is not added to IV fluids until the child is passing urine, because poor kidney function can let potassium build up to dangerous levels.
答案: D · Infective endocarditis
Infective endocarditis causes fever and a new or changing murmur, sometimes with splinter haemorrhages. Several sets of blood cultures are taken before long-course IV antibiotics.
答案: D · The cold protects the brain, so recovery may be possible after long resuscitation
Hypothermia reduces the brain's oxygen needs, and good recoveries have occurred after long resuscitation. Death is usually not confirmed until the patient has been rewarmed, unless injuries are clearly not survivable.
答案: C · Vitamin B12
B12 and folate deficiencies both cause macrocytic anemia, but B12 deficiency also damages the spinal cord and peripheral nerves, causing numbness, tingling and poor balance. Neurological damage can become permanent if treatment is delayed.核对依据: Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Vitamin B12 level - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: A · Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS)
HHS causes extreme hyperglycemia and high osmolality with severe dehydration, but enough insulin is present to prevent significant ketosis, so the pH is near normal. DKA has ketones and acidosis; SIADH has low osmolality.核对依据: Ketoacidosis · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023); Osmolality blood test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · Every 3–5 minutes
In adult advanced life support, adrenaline 1 mg IV or IO is repeated every 3–5 minutes during the arrest. High-quality CPR and defibrillation for shockable rhythms remain the priorities.
答案: C · It lowers the seizure threshold
Tramadol can cause seizures, especially at high doses or with other drugs that lower the seizure threshold. Its serotonergic action also raises the risk of serotonin syndrome.
答案: A · Class III
NYHA class I has no limitation, class II slight limitation with ordinary activity, class III marked limitation with less than ordinary activity but comfortable at rest, and class IV symptoms at rest. The class guides treatment and prognosis.
答案: D · Urgent needle or finger decompression of the right chest
These signs indicate a tension pneumothorax, which causes obstructive shock. It is decompressed immediately (needle or finger thoracostomy) without waiting for an X-ray, followed by a chest drain. The nurse gives high-flow oxygen and calls for senior help.
答案: D · Regular forced vital capacity measurements
In Guillain–Barré syndrome, the breathing muscles weaken progressively. A falling vital capacity shows this early, long before oxygen saturation drops. A weak cough and difficulty counting in one breath are other warning signs.
答案: B · 谨慎静脉补液,并密切检查渗透压、血钠和血糖
HHS 首先用静脉补液治疗,单靠补液往往就能降低血糖。渗透压迅速下降有脑水肿风险,所以要逐渐降低。如果有酮体,或补液后血糖不再下降,则以低速率加用胰岛素。由于血栓风险高,VTE 预防很重要。
答案: D · 限制性阈值,多数稳定患者常在约 70 g/L
在许多消化道出血患者中,限制性输血(血红蛋白常约 70 g/L 时输血,目标为 70–90 g/L,心血管疾病患者阈值更高)的结局优于开放性输血。大出血则按大量出血方案处理。
答案: B · 硬膜外血肿,需要紧急评估和 MRI
使用硬膜外镇痛期间或拔管后,出现运动无力加重、麻木、背痛或膀胱功能障碍,尤其是使用抗凝药时,可能提示硬膜外血肿或脓肿。这是急症:需要紧急麻醉评估和 MRI,必要时手术减压,以防永久性瘫痪。
答案: B · Tone, trauma, tissue and thrombin
The 4 Ts are tone (atony), trauma (tears, haematomas, rupture), tissue (retained placenta or clots) and thrombin (clotting disorders). Tone is the most common cause.
答案: D · A planned repeat caesarean before labour is advised
A classical uterine scar carries a high risk of rupture during labour, so trial of labour is contraindicated. A repeat caesarean is planned before labour starts, and she should come in at once if contractions begin.
答案: A · 出生后 48 小时内未排出胎粪
胎粪排出延迟、腹胀和胆汁性呕吐提示先天性巨结肠。较大的儿童可能有慢性便秘和带状大便。
答案: A · With a behavioural tool such as revised FLACC, using the parents' knowledge of usual cues
Children with cognitive impairment are assessed with behavioural tools such as the revised FLACC, which can include the child's individual pain behaviours. Parents know the child's baseline and are key partners in pain assessment.
答案: D · Use short, simple sentences and give one instruction at a time
Simple, one-step instructions, calm tone, eye contact and enough time to respond support understanding. Questions with yes/no or limited choices are easier to answer than open, complex ones.
答案: B · Ask directly about suicidal thoughts and plans, and assess his risk
Gambling disorder is associated with a raised risk of suicide, especially with debt, shame and hopelessness. The statement is a warning sign that needs direct questions and risk assessment.
答案: T = 35 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 270 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 300 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: D = 279 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 190 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
这超过了 25% 的增幅:大多数医院要求你联系开医嘱者,而不是加快补输,并评估患者是否存在液体过多。
答案: R = 15 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: U = 2.4 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 100 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 5
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
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