感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient tells the nurse about abuse and asks them to keep it a secret. What should the nurse say?
A patient's notes record a penicillin allergy with a rash. The new prescription is for amoxicillin. What should the nurse do?
下列哪种脱手套的方法是正确的?
A nurse asks a colleague to “just glance” at an insulin infusion before starting it. What makes a check truly independent?
Which patient should the RN see first after receiving a report from the night nurse?
护士应首先关注哪位患者?
甲状腺手术后,一名患者口周麻刺感并有肌肉痉挛。应怀疑哪种电解质问题?
After a viral illness, a patient has sharp chest pain that is worse lying flat and eased by sitting forward. What is the most likely cause?
Two sets of blood cultures are ordered for a patient with suspected sepsis. How are they best collected?
A patient has a continuous heparin infusion for a pulmonary embolism. A new nurse plans to adjust the infusion using today's INR of 1.1. What should the experienced nurse explain?
A prescriber gives a verbal medication order in an emergency. What should the nurse do?
一名最近开始服用氟哌啶醇的患者出现高热、"铅管样"肌强直、意识混乱和肌酸激酶极度升高。最可能的诊断是什么?
Why must anti-embolism stockings be measured and fitted correctly?
为什么高流量氧疗要使用湿化?
Why are tacrolimus blood levels checked regularly?
凌晨 03:00 一名患者的血糖为 3.6 mmol/L,但早餐前血糖偏高。该患者晚上使用长效胰岛素。护士应怎么做?
Which initial treatment is usual for symptomatic hypercalcaemia of malignancy?
Which preoperative task can a registered nurse usually delegate to a healthcare assistant (nursing assistant)?
Why is the hearing of newborns screened before discharge or soon after birth?
A newborn in the first hours sneezes, has a high-pitched cry, tremors and loose stools. The mother took opioids throughout pregnancy. Which intervention is most appropriate first?
A child with a myelomeningocele has a neurogenic bladder. Which management is usual?
The nurse has taught the parents of a child with epilepsy. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which activity is most suitable for a patient in an acute manic episode?
A patient with long-standing schizophrenia is often seen drinking from the taps. Today he is confused, has a headache and his serum sodium is 124 mmol/L (124 mEq/L). What is the most likely problem?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 96.8 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 22:40 开始,到次日早晨 06:05 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一支肾上腺素预充式注射器标示为 1:10 000(0.1 mg/mL)。医嘱为心脏骤停时 1 mg 静脉注射(IV)。你应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 25000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1200 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
25 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 10 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 15:30 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 122 次/分,血压为 75/45 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 56 kg,身高 172 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
答案: D · That they cannot promise secrecy if someone is at risk of harm
Nurses must not promise secrecy when there is a risk of harm. They listen, stay calm, explain what will happen, record the disclosure and follow safeguarding procedures.
答案: B · Withhold it and contact the prescriber, as amoxicillin is a penicillin
Amoxicillin is a penicillin and can cause the same allergic reaction, including anaphylaxis. The nurse withholds it and asks for an alternative.
答案: C · 先捏住第一只手套的外面将其剥下,再把裸露的手指伸到第二只手套的袖口下
手套外面是被污染的,所以只能接触另一只手套;裸手只能接触第二只手套的内面。随后进行手卫生。手套绝不能清洗后再次使用。
答案: A · The second nurse checks the order, drug, dose and pump settings separately without being told the answer
In an independent double check, the second person works through each step on their own, then the two results are compared. Reading the answer aloud or glancing invites confirmation bias.
答案: A · Day 1 after bowel surgery, new chest pain and heart rate 110/min
New chest pain and tachycardia after surgery could be a myocardial infarction or pulmonary embolism. This patient needs immediate assessment; the others have routine needs.
答案: D · 一名患者说这是“我一生中最严重的头痛”,突然发作,血压 170/100 mmHg
突发的剧烈“霹雳样”头痛可能意味着脑出血,如蛛网膜下腔出血,属于急症。其他患者的问题是已知的、稳定的,与其病史相符。
答案: B · 低钙血症
甲状旁腺损伤会使血钙降低,引起口周麻刺感、手足搐搦以及 Chvostek 征或 Trousseau 征阳性。
答案: B · Pericarditis
Pericarditis typically causes sharp, positional chest pain relieved by sitting forward, sometimes with a pericardial rub. Viral infection is a common cause.
答案: A · From two separate venipuncture sites, using strict aseptic technique
Taking cultures from two separate sites helps distinguish true bacteremia (growth in both sets) from skin contamination (growth in only one). The skin is cleaned carefully, the bottle tops are disinfected, and cultures are taken before antibiotics.
答案: A · Heparin is adjusted using the aPTT or anti-Xa level, not the INR
Unfractionated heparin infusions are adjusted using the aPTT or anti-factor Xa level according to protocol. The INR monitors warfarin and is little affected by heparin at usual doses. Using the wrong test can cause under- or over-anticoagulation.核对依据: Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · Write it down and read it back to the prescriber to confirm
Reading back the drug, dose, route and frequency confirms the order and catches errors. Verbal orders are documented immediately and signed by the prescriber according to policy.
答案: B · 神经阻滞剂恶性综合征
神经阻滞剂恶性综合征发生在使用多巴胺拮抗剂之后,在数天内发展,表现为铅管样强直、发热和 CK 升高。5-羟色胺综合征发展更快,以阵挛和反射亢进为特征。
答案: B · Poorly fitting stockings can cause pressure damage
Stockings that are the wrong size or that roll down can act like a tourniquet and cause skin and pressure damage. They are measured to the leg, checked daily, and avoided in significant peripheral arterial disease, severe neuropathy or leg skin damage.
答案: D · 高流量的干燥气体会使气道干燥,分泌物变稠
高流量干燥气体超出了鼻腔湿化的能力,导致黏膜干燥、分泌物变稠和不适。加温加湿的高流量系统可提高耐受性并帮助清除分泌物。
答案: C · Too high harms the kidney; too low risks rejection
Tacrolimus has a narrow therapeutic range and many interactions. High levels can cause nephrotoxicity, tremor and high glucose, while low levels risk rejection. Trough levels are taken before the morning dose.
答案: A · 处理低血糖,并报告这一规律,以便复核晚间剂量
夜间低血糖必须处理。夜间低血糖后早晨血糖偏高,可能是反跳(Somogyi 效应)或其他原因;无论哪种情况,晚间胰岛素方案都需要复核。夜间额外给胰岛素会使低血糖加重。
答案: D · IV fluids followed by an IV bisphosphonate
Hypercalcaemia causes polyuria and dehydration, so IV saline is given first, then a bisphosphonate such as zoledronic acid to reduce bone resorption. Calcium, kidney function and symptoms are monitored.
答案: B · Recording baseline vital signs
Trained assistants can record routine observations and report them. Assessment, teaching and interpreting results need registered nurse knowledge and judgement.
答案: B · Early support improves language development
Early detection of hearing loss allows hearing aids, cochlear implants or other support in the first months, which greatly improves language outcomes.
答案: A · A quiet, dim room, swaddling and small, frequent feeds
Neonatal abstinence (withdrawal) is managed first with non-drug care: low stimulation, swaddling, skin-to-skin, responsive feeding and rooming-in. Medication is added if scores stay high. Naloxone can precipitate seizures.
答案: B · Clean intermittent catheterisation
Damage to the spinal nerves causes a bladder that does not empty fully, risking infection and kidney damage. Clean intermittent catheterisation several times a day, taught to parents and later to the child, is the usual approach.
答案: B · "I'll put a spoon in his mouth so he doesn't bite or swallow his tongue."
Putting objects in the mouth can break teeth, injure the mouth or block the airway; the tongue cannot be swallowed. Timing the seizure, protecting from injury and placing the child on the side afterwards are correct.
答案: C · A walk with a staff member
Solitary, non-competitive physical activity helps release energy safely. Competitive games, large groups and tasks requiring long concentration can increase agitation and conflict.
答案: A · Water intoxication from psychogenic polydipsia
Some patients with chronic psychosis drink excessive water, which dilutes sodium and can cause confusion, seizures and coma. The nurse reports the result, monitors neurological status and follows orders for fluid restriction and regular weights.
答案: T = 36 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: t = 7.42 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 10 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: R = 48 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 8 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:8 滴/分。
答案: D = 16.67 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1120 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 22:30 输完。
答案: SI = 1.63
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
1 或更高:在这个练习病例中是休克的警示信号。
答案: 健康体重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
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