感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which part of the stethoscope is best for hearing low-pitched sounds such as some heart murmurs?
An older patient with diarrhoea for three days is dizzy on standing and passing small amounts of dark urine. What is the most likely problem?
Which type of white blood cell is most often raised in viral infections?
哪位患者最需要采取预防跌倒措施?
值班护士长需要腾出一张床位。哪位患者最适合出院或转到较低级别的护理?
A patient arrives at the emergency department with a plan to end their life, but has normal vital signs. Which ESI level fits best?
首次静脉使用一种新抗生素后,最重要的观察是什么?
Why must severe chronic hyponatraemia be corrected slowly?
A patient on hemodialysis has an arteriovenous (AV) fistula in the left arm. Where should the nurse draw routine blood samples?
一名服用阿哌沙班的患者问,为什么他不需要像服用华法林的邻居那样定期做 INR 检查。最好的解释是什么?
A patient with difficulty swallowing is prescribed several tablets. Which one should not be crushed?
Why is vancomycin given by mouth, not intravenously, for Clostridioides difficile infection?
Which investigation is most often used to confirm a pulmonary embolism?
A 28-year-old woman taking the combined pill comes in breathless and anxious. RR is 30/min, heart rate 118/min and SpO₂ 90% on air. A colleague says it is a panic attack. What should the nurse conclude?
For which patient with migraine would the nurse question an order for sumatriptan?
The nurse has four patients. Which one needs to be seen first?
当使用阿片类药物的患者镇静程度加深时,为什么这很重要?
A 76-year-old with a past peptic ulcer needs long-term anti-inflammatory treatment for arthritis. Which plan best reduces GI bleeding risk?
A woman at 18 weeks asks about safe exercise. Which advice is correct?
A preterm infant receiving oxygen has saturations that are consistently 100%. What should the nurse do?
What is a normal capillary refill time in a child?
A parent asks why the HPV vaccine is offered in early adolescence (at about 11 to 13 years, depending on the country). Which answer is best?
首次服用氟哌啶醇几小时后,一名年轻男子的颈部扭向一侧,眼球上翻。这是什么?
The nurse receives handover for four patients. Which patient should she see first?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 03:45(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了½ 杯 / 茶, 1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, ½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 6 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 250 mL 中含 50000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 2000 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 370 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 8 小时内输入 500 mL。6 小时后你发现袋中还剩 140 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 09:30 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 28 次/分,SpO₂ 93%正在补充吸氧,血压 100/60 mmHg,脉搏 98 次/分,清醒,体温 34.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: A · The bell, placed lightly on the skin
The bell picks up low-pitched sounds and must be held lightly. The diaphragm, pressed firmly, is used for high-pitched sounds such as normal breath, bowel and heart sounds.
答案: C · Dehydration from fluid loss
Diarrhoea causes loss of water and electrolytes. Postural dizziness and concentrated low-volume urine show dehydration, which needs fluid replacement, electrolyte checks and close monitoring.
答案: B · Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes increase in many viral infections. Neutrophils rise mainly with bacterial infections, and eosinophils with allergies and parasites.
答案: A · 新近出现意识混乱、正在使用镇静剂、步态不稳的老年患者
新出现的意识混乱、使用镇静剂和步态不稳都是主要的跌倒危险因素。该患者需要低位床、定时协助如厕、密切观察和用药复核等措施。
答案: C · 无并发症阑尾切除术后第 3 天,能进食,使用口服镇痛药
阑尾切除术后的患者病情稳定,能进食,口服镇痛即可控制。肌钙蛋白结果未出、氧需求上升和新发热,都意味着患者的病程尚不明朗。
答案: D · Level 2
Active suicidal ideation with a plan is a high-risk situation, so the patient is ESI level 2. They need prompt evaluation and a safe environment with close observation.
答案: C · 过敏反应的征象,如皮疹、哮鸣或肿胀
首剂有发生过敏性休克的风险。注意皮疹、荨麻疹、肿胀、哮鸣、气促和血压下降。
答案: A · Too-rapid correction can cause osmotic demyelination in the brain
In chronic hyponatraemia brain cells adapt to the low tonicity. A rapid rise in sodium draws water out too fast and can cause osmotic demyelination, so the correction rate is limited and sodium is checked often.
答案: A · From the right arm
Venipuncture, blood pressure readings and IV lines are avoided in the arm with an AV fistula or graft, to prevent damage, clotting and infection of the access. Only the dialysis team uses the access, for dialysis.
答案: D · 它的作用可预测,所以不需要常规凝血检查
阿哌沙班等直接口服抗凝药在固定剂量下作用可预测,因此不需要常规 INR 检测。应监测肾功能和肝功能、依从性以及出血征象,而 INR 不能可靠地反映其作用。
答案: D · A modified-release (extended-release) tablet
Crushing modified-release products destroys the release mechanism and can cause toxic peaks. Enteric-coated tablets should also not be crushed; the pharmacist can advise on liquid or other forms.
答案: C · Oral vancomycin is not absorbed, so it reaches high levels in the colon
Oral vancomycin stays in the gut and acts directly on C. difficile in the colon. IV vancomycin is not excreted into the gut in useful amounts, so it does not treat this infection.
答案: A · CT pulmonary angiography
CT pulmonary angiography (CTPA) shows filling defects in the pulmonary arteries. It uses iodinated contrast, so renal function and contrast allergy are checked. A ventilation–perfusion (V/Q) scan is an alternative, for example in pregnancy or renal impairment.
答案: C · Low oxygen saturation is not explained by anxiety; PE must be excluded
Panic-related hyperventilation causes respiratory alkalosis but normal oxygen saturation. Hypoxaemia with tachycardia in a woman taking oestrogen suggests PE. She needs oxygen, urgent medical assessment and investigation. Paper-bag rebreathing is unsafe and can worsen hypoxaemia.
答案: B · A patient with a history of angina
Triptans constrict blood vessels, including the coronary arteries. They are contraindicated in coronary artery disease, previous stroke and uncontrolled hypertension.
答案: D · A patient on insulin for DKA whose potassium is now 2.9 mmol/L
Insulin drives potassium into cells, and a potassium of 2.9 mmol/L during DKA treatment can cause life-threatening arrhythmias. The insulin rate and potassium replacement need urgent review under the protocol. The other patients are stable.
答案: D · 镇静加深通常先于呼吸抑制出现
镇静评分常在呼吸频率下降之前就恶化。监测镇静程度(例如使用镇静量表)以及呼吸频率和血氧饱和度,有助于及早发现阿片类药物中毒。镇静加深意味着应暂停下一剂并复评患者。
答案: D · Consider an alternative; if an NSAID is needed, add a PPI
Older age and a previous ulcer greatly increase NSAID-related bleeding. Safer options are considered first; if an NSAID is needed, the lowest effective dose for the shortest time is used with gastroprotection such as a PPI.
答案: A · Moderate exercise like walking or swimming is encouraged
Moderate exercise is safe and beneficial for most pregnant women. Contact sports, activities with a high fall risk and scuba diving are avoided, as is lying flat on the back for long periods later in pregnancy.
答案: C · Wean the oxygen to the target saturation range
Hyperoxia increases the risk of retinopathy of prematurity and lung injury. Oxygen is titrated to the prescribed target saturation range rather than to 100%.
答案: B · 2 seconds or less
A capillary refill time of 2 seconds or less is normal. A longer time suggests poor perfusion, as in dehydration or shock, though a cold environment can also prolong it.
答案: D · It works best before any exposure to the virus, and young adolescents respond strongly
HPV is passed on through sexual contact, so vaccination is most effective before any exposure. Younger adolescents also produce a strong antibody response. The vaccine protects against HPV types that cause cervical and other cancers and genital warts.
答案: C · 急性肌张力障碍
急性肌张力障碍发生在开始使用或增加抗精神病药后数小时至数日内,尤其见于年轻男性。按处方使用抗胆碱能药(如苯扎托品或丙环定)或苯海拉明治疗。
答案: A · A newly admitted man with depression who says he has given away his dog and written letters to his children
Giving away pets or possessions and writing goodbye letters are warning signs of a suicide plan. This patient needs immediate assessment; the others have needs that can safely wait a little.
答案: 3:45 AM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 132.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 1.2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: R = 10 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 92.5 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 12 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: I = 1350 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 9 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 9 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 18:30 输完。
答案: B = 19
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
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