感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why should the same pain scale be used each time a patient's pain is assessed?
Under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (England and Wales), a patient with capacity makes a decision staff think is unwise. What follows?
Which toy is safest for a toddler?
给一名有窒息风险的清醒患者口服药物。哪种做法最安全?
A patient is receiving continuous tube feeds. Which action best reduces the risk of aspiration?
哪项委派适合护理助理?
Which measure helps prevent delirium in older inpatients?
A patient with a confirmed pulmonary embolism is started on anticoagulation. Which statement best explains its purpose?
Which change in clotting tests is normal in late pregnancy?
A patient with jaundice and nausea has a positive IgM antibody to hepatitis A virus (IgM anti-HAV). What does this show?
Why are many drugs started at lower doses in older adults?
A patient on rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide and ethambutol develops a painful swollen big toe. Which drug is most likely responsible?
A patient arrives with suspected cardiac chest pain. How soon should a 12-lead ECG be recorded?
After intubation, breath sounds are heard on the right side of the chest but not the left. What is the most likely cause?
After a kidney biopsy, which observation is most important?
Which patient on a stroke unit is most at risk of falling?
Which advice helps a person with diabetes prevent foot ulcers?
为什么对术后阿片类药物引起呼吸抑制的患者,纳洛酮通常以小剂量重复给予?
胎膜刚刚破裂。护士应首先评估什么?
一名妊娠 33 周、阴道鲜红色出血的女性入院,怀疑前置胎盘。护士应对哪项医嘱提出质疑?
一名婴儿在 29 周出生,现在 2 个月大。常规的 2 月龄疫苗应在何时接种?
A 10-year-old with cystic fibrosis is going to play football on a hot day. What should the nurse teach?
A patient taking phenelzine, an MAOI, is being taught before discharge. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名 80 岁的外科患者一夜之间出现意识模糊,注意力波动,并拉扯他的静脉输液管。他入院时定向力良好。最恰当的解释是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 103.9024 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 1 杯 / 茶, 1½ fl oz / 果汁。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一个药瓶中含有 500 mg 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 4.6 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 5 mL。医嘱为 120 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
一名患者身高 168 cm,体重 64 kg。医嘱为 100 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
将 500 mg 药物稀释于 250 mL 中,通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 60 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 82 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 12:30 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 75 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 9 次/分,SpO₂ 97%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,清醒,体温 37.5 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: C · So scores can be compared to see whether pain is improving
Using one tool consistently lets the team see trends and judge whether treatment works. The tool chosen should suit the patient's age and ability to communicate.
答案: B · An unwise decision alone does not mean the person lacks capacity
One of the Act's principles is that a person is not treated as lacking capacity just because they make an unwise decision. Staff can explain risks, but the decision is the patient's.
答案: B · A large toy with no small parts that can come off
Small parts, marbles, magnets and uninflated or broken balloons are choking hazards for young children. Toys should be large, sturdy and suited to the child’s age.
答案: B · 让患者坐直,一次给一片药
直立体位和一次给一种药可降低窒息风险。只有在药房确认安全后才可碾碎,因为一些缓释和肠溶制剂碾碎后会有危险。
答案: B · Keep the head of the bed raised to at least 30 degrees
Raising the head of the bed to at least 30 degrees during and after feeding lowers the risk of reflux and aspiration. Lying flat greatly increases the risk.
答案: A · 为稳定的患者采集常规尿标本
为稳定的患者采集常规尿标本是可预测、可委派的。确认管道位置、吞咽筛查前喂食以及监测输血开始阶段都需要护理评估。
答案: A · Reorientation, glasses and hearing aids in use, and good sleep and hydration
Multicomponent prevention, including orientation, sensory aids, hydration, nutrition, mobility, sleep and avoiding unnecessary moves or drugs, reduces delirium.
答案: B · It stops the clot growing and prevents new clots while the body breaks it down
Anticoagulants prevent clot extension and new clots; the body's own fibrinolysis gradually breaks down the existing clot. Thrombolysis, which actively dissolves clots, is reserved for massive PE with shock.
答案: B · Fibrinogen and D-dimer rise
Pregnancy increases clotting factors and fibrinogen and raises the D-dimer, which helps prevent bleeding at delivery but raises the risk of clots. Because D-dimer is normally raised, it is less useful for excluding DVT in pregnancy.核对依据: D-dimer Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: C · A current or recent hepatitis A infection
IgM antibodies appear early, so IgM anti-HAV indicates acute hepatitis A. IgG anti-HAV alone shows past infection or vaccination and lifelong immunity. Hepatitis A does not become chronic and spreads by the fecal-oral route, so hand hygiene is essential.核对依据: Hepatitis A · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Kidney and liver clearance often decline, and sensitivity to drugs increases
Ageing reduces kidney function, changes body composition and often slows liver metabolism. Many drugs also have stronger effects on the ageing brain, so doses are started low and increased slowly.
答案: D · Pyrazinamide
Pyrazinamide reduces uric acid excretion and can cause hyperuricaemia and gout. It is also hepatotoxic, like isoniazid and rifampicin.
答案: C · Within about 10 minutes of arrival
A 12-lead ECG should be recorded and interpreted within about 10 minutes of first contact, because STEMI needs immediate reperfusion. Repeat ECGs are taken if the pain changes or continues. Troponin results take longer and should not delay the ECG.
答案: D · The tube has entered the right main bronchus
The right main bronchus is more in line with the trachea, so a tube pushed too far usually enters it and only the right lung is ventilated. The tube is withdrawn slightly by the team and position is rechecked. Oesophageal intubation gives no breath sounds and gastric gurgling.
答案: B · Signs of bleeding, such as haematuria and a rising pulse
Bleeding is the main complication of kidney biopsy. The patient usually has bed rest for some hours, with frequent BP and pulse checks and inspection of urine for haematuria. Back pain or a falling BP is reported at once.
答案: C · A patient with a right-hemisphere stroke who is impulsive and denies having weakness
Right-hemisphere strokes often cause left-sided neglect, poor judgement, impulsivity and denial of the deficit. These patients may try to get up alone. Patients with left-hemisphere strokes are often more cautious.
答案: C · Check the feet every day and never walk barefoot
Peripheral neuropathy and poor circulation mean injuries can go unnoticed. Daily inspection, well-fitting footwear, checking water temperature and regular podiatry help prevent ulcers.
答案: B · 恢复呼吸,同时不引起剧烈疼痛和戒断反应
大剂量推注可突然逆转镇痛,引起剧烈疼痛、躁动、高血压、肺水肿和心律失常。滴定小剂量可恢复足够的呼吸。因为纳洛酮的作用可能比阿片类药物短,可能需要监测并重复给药或持续输注。
答案: C · 胎心率
胎膜破裂后,首先检查胎心率,以发现脐带脱垂或受压。然后记录羊水的颜色、气味、量和时间。
答案: D · 进行宫颈指诊以评估扩张程度
在超声排除前置胎盘之前应避免阴道指诊,因为它可能引发严重出血。其他医嘱都是合适的。
答案: D · 现在,按婴儿的实际月龄
在大多数免疫程序中,早产儿按实际月龄(出生后的年龄)而不是矫正月龄接种疫苗。一些极早产儿在医院接种第一批疫苗,并监测呼吸暂停。
答案: C · Drink more and add extra salt, because more salt is lost in sweat
Children with CF lose much more salt in sweat than other children and can become salt-depleted and dehydrated in heat or exercise. Extra fluids and salt are advised; exercise is encouraged because it helps airway clearance.
答案: C · "I can take any cold and flu remedy from the pharmacy."
Decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are sympathomimetics and can cause a hypertensive crisis with MAOIs. Patients should check any new medicine, including over-the-counter remedies, with a pharmacist or prescriber.
答案: C · 可能是谵妄:寻找潜在的躯体原因并告知团队
急性、波动性的意识模糊提示谵妄,常由感染、疼痛、药物、脱水、尿潴留或缺氧引起。这是医疗急症;应治疗病因,并首先采用非药物措施保证患者的安全。
答案: x = 103.9 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 290 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 1.2 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: D = 172.8 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: R = 10 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: U = 1.45 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 6.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 6 h 28 min,所以袋子大约在 18:58 输完。
答案: MFS = 80
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
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