感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a liquid medicine be measured in a medicine cup?
一名正在静脉输液的老年患者出现气短,肺部有湿啰音,踝部肿胀。最可能的问题是什么?
患者在床上时,其病房里的垃圾桶起了小火。护士首先应做什么?
A patient weighs 180 kg and needs to be moved from bed to chair. The standard ceiling lift on the unit has a lower weight limit. What should the nurse do?
在 START 分诊中,一名不能行走的成人每分钟呼吸 36 次。该伤员被归入哪一类?
A nurse has a needlestick injury from a used needle. What should the nurse do first?
Why should a urinary catheter drainage bag be kept below the level of the bladder?
一名长期饥饿后接受肠内管饲的患者出现低磷、低钾和心律失常。最可能是什么?
Why is a blood β-hydroxybutyrate level often preferred to a urine ketone dipstick in DKA?
A patient with long-standing rheumatoid arthritis has a hemoglobin of 10.5 g/dL (105 g/L), a low serum iron, a low total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) and a high-normal ferritin. Which condition fits best?
为什么多西环素不应与牛奶或抗酸药同时服用?
Before starting long-term bisphosphonate treatment, a patient is advised to have a dental check-up. Why?
In heart failure, why does activation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system worsen symptoms over time?
A patient's blood gas shows pH 7.26, PaCO₂ 9.0 kPa (68 mmHg) and bicarbonate 25 mmol/L. What does this show?
A conscious patient with a glucose of 3.1 mmol/L (56 mg/dL) can swallow safely. Which is the best first treatment?
An 89-year-old with stage 5 CKD and severe heart failure, who has capacity, decides not to start dialysis. What is the nurse's best response?
Why are urinary catheters removed as early as possible after surgery?
A 62-year-old with known reflux reports burning central chest pain with sweating and breathlessness that began while walking. What should the nurse do first?
Which finding on day 4 after a caesarean suggests a wound infection?
剖宫产后第 2 天,一名女性体温 38.4 °C,子宫有压痛,恶露恶臭。最可能的是什么?
Which early sign may tell a child with haemophilia that a joint bleed is starting?
一名已经学会如厕的 3 岁儿童在住院期间开始尿床。家长很担心。护士应怎么说?
Which feature helps distinguish normal grief from major depression?
A patient who had been abstinent from alcohol for 6 months has started drinking again. He says, "I've failed completely. There's no point in trying." What is the most helpful response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 105.5 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 5 mcg/min。请把这个剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。
一名体重 7 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方为 1500 单位的药物,药液规格为 5000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求在 8 小时内输入 1000 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 540 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 750 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 53 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 09:30 开始以 120 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 50 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者仅对压迫(疼痛刺激)睁眼,只发出无法理解的声音,如呻吟,最佳运动反应表现为:手臂异常屈曲(去皮质姿势)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 143 kg,身高 164 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
答案: A · At eye level, reading the lowest point of the curved surface
The cup is placed on a flat surface and read at eye level at the bottom of the meniscus. An oral syringe is more accurate for small volumes.
答案: B · 液体超负荷
静脉治疗期间出现气短、湿啰音、呼吸频率增快和水肿提示液体超负荷。护士应视情况停止或减慢输液,让患者坐起并上报。
答案: B · 把患者从紧急危险中转移出来
首先是救援:把患者从火场转移开。然后拉响警报、关门控制火势,并在安全时灭火。打开窗户会给火焰提供氧气。
答案: B · Use bariatric-rated equipment and enough trained staff
Using equipment above its rated capacity can cause collapse and injury. Bariatric lifts, chairs and beds are used, with enough trained staff and a plan agreed in advance.
答案: A · 红色(立即)
在 START 中,呼吸频率超过 30 次/分意味着伤员被标为立即(红色)。30 次或以下则继续进行灌注和意识状态检查。
答案: C · Wash the area with soap and water
The wound is washed with soap and water at once. The nurse then reports the injury immediately so the source patient can be tested and post-exposure treatment considered.
答案: A · To prevent urine flowing back into the bladder
Keeping the bag below the bladder allows drainage and prevents backflow, which reduces infection risk. The bag should also not touch the floor.
答案: A · 再喂养综合征
再喂养综合征是恢复进食时磷、钾和镁迅速转移进入细胞所致。高危患者应缓慢开始,并监测电解质和补充硫胺素。
答案: D · It measures the main ketone in DKA, and the dipstick may miss it
In DKA, β-hydroxybutyrate is the main ketone, but most urine dipsticks detect acetoacetate, so they can underestimate ketosis. Blood β-hydroxybutyrate gives a current value that is also useful to monitor recovery.核对依据: Diabetic ketoacidosis - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Anemia of chronic disease (inflammation)
In chronic inflammation, iron is trapped in stores, so serum iron is low but ferritin is normal or high and TIBC is low. In iron deficiency, ferritin is low and TIBC is high. Iron supplements help iron deficiency much more than anemia of chronic disease.核对依据: Ferritin Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Serum iron test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · 钙和其他金属离子会与之结合,减少吸收
四环素类在肠道中与钙、镁、铝和铁形成络合物,从而减少吸收。服药时间应与这些产品错开。
答案: D · They are linked to osteonecrosis of the jaw after dental surgery
Osteonecrosis of the jaw is a rare but serious adverse effect, mostly after invasive dental work. Dental problems are treated before starting, and good oral hygiene is maintained.
答案: C · It causes sodium and water retention and vasoconstriction
Reduced cardiac output activates RAAS and the sympathetic system. Angiotensin II constricts vessels (raising afterload) and aldosterone retains sodium and water (raising preload and congestion). ACE inhibitors, ARBs, mineralocorticoid antagonists and beta-blockers block these harmful loops.
答案: B · Acute respiratory acidosis
A low pH with raised PaCO₂ is respiratory acidosis. A normal bicarbonate (about 22–26 mmol/L) shows the kidneys have not yet compensated, so the problem is acute, as in opioid toxicity, exhaustion or an acute COPD exacerbation. Treatment targets ventilation.
答案: C · Glucose tablets or a small glass of fruit juice
About 15–20 g of fast-acting carbohydrate, such as glucose tablets or juice, raises glucose quickly. Chocolate and milk contain fat, which slows absorption. Glucose is rechecked after about 15 minutes.
答案: C · Respect the decision and support symptom-focused care
A competent patient can refuse dialysis. The nurse makes sure the choice is informed, respects it and supports conservative kidney management, with symptom control, advance care planning and palliative care input.
答案: D · To reduce the risk of catheter-associated infection
The risk of catheter-associated urinary tract infection increases with duration. Daily review of the need for a catheter, and early removal, reduce infection and help mobilisation.
答案: B · Record a 12-lead ECG and escalate as possible cardiac pain
Cardiac pain can feel like heartburn. Exertional pain with sweating and breathlessness must be treated as possible acute coronary syndrome until excluded, so an ECG and urgent review come first.
答案: C · Redness, warmth and discharge
Redness spreading from the incision, warmth, swelling, purulent discharge, gaping edges and fever suggest infection. Numbness near the scar is common and not a sign of infection.
答案: B · 子宫内膜炎
发热、子宫压痛和恶臭的恶露提示子宫内膜炎,剖宫产后更常见。应上报,以便评估并进行抗生素治疗。
答案: C · Tingling or warmth in the joint
Many children with haemophilia feel tingling, warmth or tightness in a joint before pain, swelling and reduced movement develop. Treating early with factor replacement limits joint damage.
答案: D · 退行是对住院应激的常见反应,通常会过去;不要惩罚孩子
暂时性退行在住院的幼儿中很常见。应无惩罚地接受它,保持熟悉的日常规律并表扬孩子;技能通常在出院后恢复。
答案: A · In grief, painful feelings come in waves and self-esteem is usually kept
In grief, sadness tends to come in waves linked to reminders of the loss, and positive memories and humour are possible. Pervasive worthlessness, self-loathing and hopelessness suggest depression.
答案: C · "Relapse is common in recovery. Let's look at what led to it and what you learned."
Relapse is common and does not mean failure. Treating it as a learning opportunity, reviewing triggers and coping strategies and returning to the plan supports the person's motivation.
答案: T = 40.8 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: D = 0.3 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 1.4 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.3 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 135 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: t = 6.7 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 1.42 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7.2 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 12 min,所以袋子大约在 16:42 输完。
答案: 重度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
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