感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient cannot stand to be measured for the MUST screening tool. How can their height be estimated?
A patient has been taught how to prevent constipation. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A child has swallowed a button battery. Why is this urgent?
A nurse discovers that an insulin infusion was programmed using the wrong drug concentration in the pump library. What should the nurse do first?
A nursing assistant offers to suction a patient’s new tracheostomy. Which response from the RN is best?
Which patient needs airborne precautions rather than droplet precautions?
为什么对疑似脓毒症的患者要测定血清乳酸?
A patient with an epidural catheter develops new back pain and increasing leg weakness when the block should be wearing off. What should be suspected?
A patient who is breathless during a transfusion has hypotension, fever and bilateral lung infiltrates, with no signs of fluid overload. Which complication is most likely?
A patient's low calcium does not improve despite several days of calcium replacement. Which other electrolyte should be checked and corrected?
Which teaching about zolpidem is correct?
A patient has a serum potassium of 7.0 mmol/L (mEq/L) and peaked T waves on the ECG. Which drug is given first to protect the heart?
A patient's ankle–brachial pressure index (ABPI) is 0.6. What does this suggest?
一名心力衰竭患者三天内体重增加 2.5 kg,双肺底出现新的湿啰音,现在需要垫四个枕头睡觉。血压 138/84 mmHg,未吸氧时 SpO₂ 93%。优先处理是什么?
Where is the zero point of an external ventricular drain usually levelled?
一名因颈椎骨折佩戴 halo 背心的患者发生心脏骤停。必须立即备好什么?
A day after a spinal anaesthetic, a patient has a headache that is worse when sitting up and better when lying flat. What is the most likely cause?
急性胰腺炎最初几小时,通常推荐哪种补液策略?
Which behaviour shows positive early bonding between mother and newborn?
A woman is 10 cm dilated with an urge to push. The fetal head is at station 0 and the tracing is normal. Which approach is supported by current practice?
10 个月婴儿的哪项生长曲线表现最需要进一步评估?
After surgery for a perforated appendix, why is a child often nursed in a semi-upright position?
What should a patient starting zolpidem for insomnia be taught to report?
A caller says she is a patient's sister and asks how he is doing. The patient has not given consent to share information. What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.96254 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1 tsp,每 8 小时一次,共 14 天。混悬液每瓶 50 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
一个药瓶中含有 2 g 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 7.4 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 8 mL。医嘱为 150 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
你需要用 20%(w/v)储备液配制 200 mL 5%(w/v)溶液。 必须向储备液中加入多少水 W?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 1000 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 370 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 400 mg,以 5 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 12:00 开始以 75 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 60 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 9 次/分,SpO₂ 92%正在补充吸氧,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 98 次/分,仅对声音有反应,体温 35.8 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 86%吸室内空气,血压 142/86 mmHg,脉搏 126 次/分,清醒,体温 37.6 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: A · From the length of the forearm (ulna)
MUST includes tables that estimate height from ulna length when the patient cannot stand. Self-reported height can also be used if it is reliable.
答案: A · "I'll take a strong laxative every day just in case."
Fluids, fibre, activity and responding to the urge prevent constipation. Taking stimulant laxatives every day without need is not advised and can lead to dependence and electrolyte problems.
答案: C · It can burn through the lining of the esophagus within hours
A button battery lodged in the esophagus can cause severe chemical burns within a few hours, so the child needs emergency assessment and often removal. It should never be treated as harmless.
答案: A · Stop the infusion and check the patient’s blood glucose
A concentration error means the dose delivered was wrong. The nurse stops the infusion, assesses the patient including blood glucose, treats as needed, notifies the prescriber and reports the event.
答案: B · “Suctioning a new tracheostomy is my task; I will do it myself.”
Care of a new tracheostomy, including suctioning, involves airway risk and assessment, so the RN keeps it. Leaving it to the family or the next shift is unsafe.
答案: C · A child with chickenpox (varicella)
Varicella spreads by the airborne route (and contact), so it needs an airborne infection isolation room. Influenza, pertussis and mumps are spread mainly by droplets.
答案: B · 乳酸升高表明组织灌注不良、风险更高
组织灌注不良时乳酸会升高。脓毒症中乳酸高提示病情更重,并用于指导液体复苏。
答案: B · An epidural haematoma or abscess compressing the spinal cord
Increasing motor block, back pain or new weakness after an epidural can mean a haematoma or abscess compressing the cord. This is a surgical emergency: stop the infusion and get urgent medical review.
答案: C · Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)
TRALI is acute lung injury within 6 hours of transfusion, caused by donor antibodies activating neutrophils in the lungs. It causes hypoxia, bilateral infiltrates and often hypotension and fever. TACO, in contrast, causes hypertension and signs of fluid overload.
答案: C · Magnesium
Low magnesium reduces parathyroid hormone secretion and the body's response to it, so hypocalcemia does not correct until magnesium is replaced. The same applies to refractory hypokalemia.核对依据: Magnesium Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023)
答案: C · Take it right before bed, only if you can sleep a full night
Zolpidem can cause next-day impairment and complex sleep behaviours such as sleep-walking or sleep-driving. Alcohol and other sedatives increase these risks.
答案: D · Intravenous calcium gluconate
IV calcium stabilises the myocardial cell membrane within minutes and reduces the risk of arrhythmia. Other treatments then shift potassium into cells (insulin with glucose) or remove it from the body.
答案: C · Significant peripheral arterial disease
An ABPI of roughly 1.0–1.3 is normal, and below 0.9 indicates peripheral arterial disease; lower values mean more severe disease. A value above about 1.3 suggests calcified, incompressible vessels, common in diabetes, and is unreliable.
答案: B · 让患者坐起,全面评估并报告液体过多
体重迅速增加伴湿啰音和端坐呼吸提示液体过多和心力衰竭加重。坐直可减少静脉回流并缓解呼吸。护士应完成评估(氧合趋势、液体平衡、水肿)并上报,以便开处方者调整利尿剂。补充更多液体或平躺会加重淤血。
答案: B · At the tragus of the ear
The EVD is levelled at the tragus, which approximates the foramen of Monro. If the head of the bed is changed, the drain must be re-levelled, because its height decides how much CSF drains.
答案: B · 用于打开背心前部以便进行心肺复苏的工具
用于松开背心前部的工具应一直固定在背心上,以便在心肺复苏或气道管理时迅速打开。针孔部位需要定期护理以防感染,并需要教导患者背心下的皮肤护理。
答案: B · Post-dural puncture headache
CSF leaking through the dural puncture lowers pressure and causes a positional headache. Fluids, simple analgesia and caffeine may help, and the anaesthetist is informed; an epidural blood patch is sometimes needed.
答案: D · 以目标为导向的平衡晶体液,根据反应调整
胰腺炎使液体丢失到组织中,所以早期静脉补液很重要。最新指南倾向于使用哈特曼液或乳酸林格液等平衡晶体液进行适度、以目标为导向的复苏,并根据心率、血压和尿量调整,因为过于积极的补液只会增加负荷而没有益处。
答案: D · Face-to-face eye contact and talking to the baby
En face positioning, touching, talking in a high-pitched voice and calling the baby by name are positive bonding behaviours. Persistent avoidance needs further assessment and support.
答案: C · Let her push with her urge in a position she prefers
Spontaneous pushing with the urge, short breath holds and upright or side-lying positions are encouraged. Long, forced Valsalva pushing in the supine position can reduce placental blood flow.
答案: C · 自上几次就诊以来,体重已跨越两条主要百分位线下降
沿着较低百分位稳步生长的儿童可能只是个子小。跨越两条主要百分位线提示生长迟缓,需要评估喂养、疾病和社会状况。
答案: C · To help infected fluid collect in the pelvis rather than spread upwards
A semi-upright position helps any infected fluid drain towards the pelvis, where an abscess is easier to manage, rather than tracking under the diaphragm. It also eases breathing and coughing after abdominal surgery.
答案: A · Doing things while not fully awake, such as sleepwalking or driving, with no memory of it
Zolpidem and similar "Z-drugs" can cause complex sleep behaviours, such as sleep-walking, sleep-driving or cooking while not fully awake, which can cause serious injury. These must be reported and the drug stopped.
答案: A · Neither confirm nor deny that he is there, and offer to pass on a message
Without the patient's consent, the nurse should not disclose that a person is receiving mental health care. Offering to pass on a message respects confidentiality while allowing the patient to decide.
答案: x = 0.96 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: N = 5
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.6 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: W = 150 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 185 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: D = 4 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = 790 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 7.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 19:20 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 10
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
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