感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
什么时候应该用肥皂和水洗手,而不是使用含酒精的手消毒剂?
Why must medicines for Parkinson's disease, such as levodopa, be given on time?
使用中心静脉导管接头之前,护士应该做什么?
A nurse discovers that an insulin infusion was programmed using the wrong drug concentration in the pump library. What should the nurse do first?
A nurse teaches a patient with COPD pursed-lip breathing. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A child is admitted with a suspected Wilms tumor (nephroblastoma). Which instruction is most important for all staff?
哪种电解质紊乱对心律最危险?
一名髋部骨折的老年患者在受伤两天后出现气短、意识混乱,胸部有瘀点状皮疹。应怀疑哪种并发症?
When is a peak level for an IV aminoglycoside such as gentamicin usually drawn?
A patient on high-dose dexamethasone has a white cell count of 15 × 10³/µL, mostly mature neutrophils with no bands. They have no fever and no signs of infection. What is the most likely explanation?
异丙托溴铵是用于 COPD 的支气管扩张剂。它如何起作用?
A patient with myasthenia gravis took extra pyridostigmine doses. She now has increasing weakness, heavy salivation, sweating, small pupils and diarrhoea. What is the most likely cause?
哪项建议有助于预防长途飞行或手术后的 DVT?
An older patient with three rib fractures is breathing shallowly and refuses to cough because of pain. What is the priority intervention?
A patient has confirmed meningococcal meningitis. What is usually offered to their close household contacts?
A man with chronic urinary retention is catheterised. Over the next hours he passes very large volumes of urine. What is the main nursing concern?
什么是肿瘤溶解综合征?
After surgery, a patient says they have "no pain" but grimaces, breathes shallowly and refuses to move or cough. What should the nurse do?
Progesterone relaxes smooth muscle in pregnancy. Which common complaint does this help explain?
护士应首先评估哪位产妇?
Which newborn problem may be the first sign of cystic fibrosis?
一名 2 个月大的婴儿被带来就诊,双颊有瘀伤。家长说婴儿“会撞到东西”。护士应怎么做?
一名患者使用“glimpotrance”这个词,并解释说它的意思是控制他思想的力量。这是什么?
The daughter of a man with moderate dementia says she is exhausted, is not sleeping and feels guilty for getting angry with him. What is the most helpful nursing response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 38.8 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血红蛋白结果为 156 g/L。请用 g/dL 表示Hb。
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童按 2.5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 50000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 2000 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 1500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 1440 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。8 小时后你发现袋中还剩 530 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 08:30 开始用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 14:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 无损害; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 无明显问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 103 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
答案: A · 手上有肉眼可见的污垢或污染时
手上有可见污垢或被体液污染时,需要用肥皂和水洗手。对于看起来干净的手,含酒精的手消毒剂在大多数"五个时刻"中都快速有效。
答案: B · Late doses can cause severe stiffness, falls and swallowing problems
Levodopa wears off quickly, and delays can cause rigidity, falls, swallowing difficulty and aspiration. It is a time-critical medicine in hospital.
答案: B · 用消毒剂擦洗接头并待其干燥
用酒精或氯己定等消毒剂“擦洗接头”,并充分摩擦、留足干燥时间,可减少中心静脉导管相关血流感染。干燥时间是消毒的一部分。
答案: C · Stop the infusion and check the patient’s blood glucose
A concentration error means the dose delivered was wrong. The nurse stops the infusion, assesses the patient including blood glucose, treats as needed, notifies the prescriber and reports the event.
答案: C · “I will breathe in through my mouth and out quickly through my nose.”
Pursed-lip breathing means breathing in through the nose and out slowly through pursed lips, making exhalation longer. This keeps airways open and reduces air trapping.
答案: A · Do not palpate the abdomen
Palpating a Wilms tumor can rupture the capsule and spread cancer cells. A sign is often put on the bed to warn staff not to palpate the abdomen.
答案: A · 血钾过高或过低
高钾血症和低钾血症都可能引起致命性心律失常。钾绝不能未经稀释快速静脉推注。
答案: C · 脂肪栓塞综合征
脂肪栓塞通常在长骨或骨盆骨折后 24–72 小时出现,表现为呼吸窘迫、神经系统改变和瘀点状皮疹三联征。
答案: D · About 30 minutes after the infusion ends
Peak aminoglycoside levels are usually drawn about 30 minutes after a 30-minute infusion ends, to confirm the level is high enough to kill bacteria. Troughs, drawn just before the next dose, check for accumulation. Local protocols may differ, especially with once-daily dosing.
答案: B · A steroid effect that moves neutrophils into the circulating blood
Corticosteroids raise the neutrophil count by releasing marginated neutrophils and slowing their exit from the blood, usually without a left shift. The nurse still assesses carefully, because steroids can also hide the usual signs of infection.
答案: D · 阻断气道平滑肌中的毒蕈碱受体
异丙托溴铵是一种吸入性抗胆碱药。它阻断迷走神经介导的支气管收缩和黏液分泌,对 COPD 尤其有用。
答案: A · Cholinergic crisis from too much anticholinesterase drug
Excess acetylcholine causes muscarinic signs (salivation, sweating, miosis, diarrhoea) and depolarising weakness. In myasthenic crisis, weakness occurs without these cholinergic signs; both can cause respiratory failure.
答案: D · 定期做踝关节运动并摄入足够的液体
小腿肌肉活动、补充水分,以及在有指征时使用合适的加压弹力袜或药物预防,可减少静脉淤滞和血栓形成。翘腿和紧的束带会妨碍静脉回流,而脱水会增加血液黏稠度。
答案: B · Effective analgesia so they can breathe deeply and cough
Pain from rib fractures causes shallow breathing and poor coughing, leading to atelectasis and pneumonia, especially in older adults. Good analgesia (sometimes regional blocks), deep breathing, coughing with support and early mobilisation are key. Chest strapping restricts breathing and is not used.
答案: D · Preventive antibiotics
Close contacts, such as people living in the same household, are offered chemoprophylaxis, for example with ciprofloxacin or rifampicin (rifampin), to clear carriage. Public health teams usually coordinate this.
答案: C · Fluid and electrolyte loss from post-obstructive diuresis
After relief of chronic obstruction, the kidneys may pass large volumes of urine and salt. Hypovolaemia and electrolyte problems can follow. Strict fluid balance, blood pressure checks and electrolyte monitoring are needed.
答案: A · 癌细胞迅速分解引起的代谢急症
肿瘤细胞迅速死亡(通常在急性白血病或高级别淋巴瘤等快速生长的癌症开始治疗后)会释放钾、磷酸盐和核酸(转化为尿酸)。这可引起 AKI 和心律失常。
答案: A · Explore their beliefs and explain how analgesia aids recovery
Patients may under-report pain because of beliefs, fear of addiction or not wanting to bother staff. Exploring these concerns and explaining that good analgesia helps breathing and mobility supports a shared plan.
答案: C · Constipation
Progesterone slows gut motility, which causes constipation and contributes to heartburn because the lower oesophageal sphincter relaxes. Gum bleeding and nasal stuffiness are mainly due to oestrogen and increased blood flow.
答案: C · 产后 1 小时:心率 118 次/分,宫底松软
产后第一小时子宫松软伴心动过速提示出血,需要立即评估。第 1 天的小血块、产后痛以及第 3 天的乳房胀痛都是预期的表现。
答案: B · Meconium ileus
In about 10–20% of babies with CF, thick, sticky meconium blocks the small bowel (meconium ileus), causing distension and vomiting. Newborn screening also helps detect CF early.
答案: D · 客观记录发现,并按照儿童保护程序上报该问题
尚不能活动的婴儿出现瘀伤是虐待的强烈警示信号,而且病史与婴儿的发育不符。护士应记录事实,确保孩子安全,并遵循儿童保护程序。
答案: A · 新语症
新语症是自创的词,或被赋予私人含义的真实词汇,是思维紊乱的征象。
答案: C · Acknowledge her strain and discuss support such as respite care and carers' groups
Caregiver strain is common and can affect both the carer and the patient. Recognising it, and offering respite, practical support and carers' groups, helps the carer continue safely.
答案: T = 101.8 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: Hb = 15.6 g/dL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 5 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: R = 40 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 180 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 6 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: I = 1310 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 550 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 12
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: DBP = 46 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
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