感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
While wearing sterile gloves, where should the nurse keep their hands?
一名从房屋火灾中获救的患者脉搏血氧读数为 99%,但嗜睡且头痛。为什么这个读数可能给人以虚假的安心?
When is a prophylactic antibiotic usually given to prevent a surgical site infection?
In START triage at a mass-casualty incident, a casualty cannot walk, breathes 20 times a minute, has a radial pulse and follows simple commands. Which category applies?
Which finding is an early sign of compartment syndrome in a patient with a lower leg fracture?
Two hours after a femoral cardiac catheterization, the nurse sees blood spreading from the puncture site. What is the first action?
A patient has a continuous stream of bubbles in the water seal chamber of their chest drain. What does this most likely indicate?
A patient has a blood pressure of 220/130 mmHg with headache, confusion and visual disturbance. Why is the blood pressure lowered in a controlled way rather than as fast as possible?
一名该服地高辛的患者钾为 3.1 mEq/L。为什么这个结果很重要?
A nursing student has a positive interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) for tuberculosis, no symptoms and a normal chest X-ray. What does this most likely mean?
A patient is starting olanzapine. Which monitoring is most important over the following months?
合用几种延长 QT 间期的药物会增加哪种危及生命的心律失常的风险?
Which ECG change is classically linked with hyperkalaemia?
A nurse receives handover on four patients. Which patient should be seen first?
一名服用格列齐特(一种磺脲类药物)的患者因低血糖入院。为什么需要延长监测时间?
Six hours after a catheter is removed, a patient has not passed urine and feels uncomfortable. What should the nurse do?
造口袋底盘的开口应剪多大?
急性胰腺炎最初几小时,通常推荐哪种补液策略?
A woman at 39 weeks with a healthy pregnancy asks about walking in early labour. What is the best advice?
A woman with gestational diabetes asks if she will have diabetes after the baby is born. Which reply is accurate?
A child with a known peanut allergy is starting school. What is the most important step?
Which finding in an infant with suspected reflux needs prompt medical review?
Which communication approach is best with a patient who has paranoid personality disorder?
一名患者在出现暴力行为后刚被施以身体约束。哪项评估是最高优先级?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次注射的剂量计算得到 2.6838 mL。 本练习的规则是:1 mL 或以上的体积取到最接近的十分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注的给药速率为 8 mcg/min。请把这个剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。
某患者体重 45 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 10 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
处方剂量为 115 微克。安瓿浓度为 0.5 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 75 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋中含有 2 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 4 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 15:30 开始以 125 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 80 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 98%正在补充吸氧,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 104 次/分,清醒,体温 39.6 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 65 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 81 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 65 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
答案: D · Above waist level and in sight
Sterile hands are kept in front of the body, above the waist and within sight, so accidental contamination is noticed. The edge of the field is not sterile.
答案: C · 与血红蛋白结合的一氧化碳被血氧仪当作氧气读取
碳氧血红蛋白对光的吸收与氧合血红蛋白很相似,因此标准脉搏血氧仪会高估血氧饱和度。需要做带碳氧血红蛋白测定的动脉血气分析,并给予高流量吸氧。
答案: D · Within about 60 minutes before the incision
For most drugs, prophylaxis is given within 60 minutes before the incision so tissue levels are high during surgery. Some drugs, such as vancomycin, start earlier because they are infused over longer.
答案: B · Yellow (delayed)
The casualty cannot walk, so is not green. Breathing is under 30 a minute, perfusion is adequate and they obey commands, so none of the red criteria apply. This makes them yellow, delayed.
答案: D · Pain out of proportion to the injury that worsens when the toes are stretched
The earliest sign is severe pain that is not relieved by usual analgesia and worsens on passive stretch. Loss of pulse is a late sign, so the nurse reports pain early.
答案: B · Apply firm, direct pressure just above the puncture site
Direct manual pressure just above the puncture site compresses the femoral artery and stops bleeding. The patient keeps the leg straight, and the nurse checks vital signs and distal pulses and informs the provider.
答案: D · An air leak, from the lung or from the drainage system
Bubbling with breathing in a drain for pneumothorax shows air is leaving the pleural space. Continuous bubbling can also mean a leak in the connections, so the system is checked and the finding reported.
答案: B · A sudden drop can reduce blood flow to the brain, heart and kidneys
In a hypertensive emergency, autoregulation in vital organs is reset to higher pressures. Lowering BP too fast can cause ischaemia, so it is reduced gradually under close monitoring.
答案: D · 低钾增加地高辛中毒的风险
地高辛与钠–钾泵上通常结合钾的位点结合,因此低钾会增强地高辛的作用并增加心律失常的风险。护士应在给药前报告该数值。
答案: C · Latent TB infection, which is not contagious
A positive IGRA with no symptoms and a normal chest X-ray indicates latent TB infection, which cannot spread to others. Treatment of latent TB is often offered to prevent later active disease. The IGRA is much less likely than the skin test to give a false-positive result after BCG vaccination.核对依据: Tuberculosis Screening · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); PPD skin test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · Weight, blood glucose and blood lipids
Olanzapine and several other atypical antipsychotics cause weight gain, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia. Weight, waist size, glucose and lipids are checked regularly.
答案: C · 尖端扭转型室性心动过速
QT 间期延长会延迟复极,可诱发尖端扭转型室速,并可能转为心室颤动。某些大环内酯类、抗精神病药和抗心律失常药都会增加这一风险。
答案: C · Tall, peaked T waves
Rising potassium causes tall, tented T waves, then a flattened P wave, a prolonged PR interval and a widening QRS that can progress to ventricular fibrillation or asystole. U waves suggest hypokalaemia; a sawtooth baseline is atrial flutter.
答案: B · A patient on day 1 after surgery who is newly restless, RR 30/min, SpO₂ 88% on 4 L/min
New restlessness, tachypnoea and hypoxaemia despite oxygen suggest acute deterioration such as a PE, pneumonia or bleeding, so this patient is seen first. SpO₂ 89% is within target for a stable COPD patient, a mild fever on antibiotics is expected, and the asthma patient is well.
答案: A · 该药作用持续多个小时,低血糖可能再次出现
磺脲类药物刺激胰腺释放胰岛素,作用持续时间长,在老年人和肾功能受损者中尤其如此。初始治疗后低血糖可能复发,因此需要延长血糖监测时间。
答案: A · Do a bladder scan to check for retention
After catheter removal, the patient is monitored for voiding. Discomfort without voiding suggests retention. A bladder scan shows the volume, and the team decides whether to re-catheterise or use intermittent catheterisation.
答案: B · 比造口四周大约 2–3 mm
开口应剪得紧贴造口周围,留出约 2–3 mm(约 1/8 英寸)的小间隙。太大会使皮肤暴露于排出物;太小可能割伤造口。造口在最初几周内会缩小,所以要重复测量。
答案: B · 以目标为导向的平衡晶体液,根据反应调整
胰腺炎使液体丢失到组织中,所以早期静脉补液很重要。最新指南倾向于使用哈特曼液或乳酸林格液等平衡晶体液进行适度、以目标为导向的复苏,并根据心率、血压和尿量调整,因为过于积极的补液只会增加负荷而没有益处。
答案: D · Walking and upright positions can help progress
Upright positions and mobility in the first stage can shorten labour and reduce the need for epidurals. She can choose positions that feel comfortable.
答案: B · It usually resolves, but her risk of type 2 diabetes stays higher
Gestational diabetes usually resolves after birth, but the risk of later type 2 diabetes is much higher. She should have a glucose test after birth and regular screening, and keep up a healthy weight and activity.
答案: A · A written allergy action plan, with in-date auto-injectors and trained staff
Schools need an individual action plan describing symptoms and steps, staff trained to recognise anaphylaxis and give adrenaline, and auto-injectors that are always quickly available. Avoiding the allergen and not sharing food also help.
答案: D · Poor weight gain, refusing feeds and blood in the vomit
Many babies regurgitate small amounts and grow well; this needs only reassurance. Faltering growth, feed refusal, blood in the vomit, bilious vomiting or breathing problems suggest complications or another diagnosis.
答案: B · Be clear, honest and business-like, and explain the reasons for actions
People with paranoid personality disorder are distrustful and may misread friendliness or jokes as hostility. Honesty, consistency and clear explanations reduce suspicion.
答案: C · 呼吸和循环,并持续观察
约束期间的死亡往往由呼吸问题引起。关于原因的复盘要等患者平静后再进行。持续监测呼吸、气道、循环、皮肤和精神状态至关重要,一旦安全就应立即解除约束。
答案: x = 2.7 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: D = 0.48 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 225 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.23 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 75 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: B = 755 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 11.4 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 11 h 23 min,所以袋子大约在 02:53 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 5
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: DBP = 57 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
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