感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient starts regular morphine. What is usually prescribed alongside it to prevent a common side effect?
For a healthy adult having planned surgery, until how long before anaesthesia can water usually still be taken?
How should a nurse handle soiled bed linen?
一名采取空气传播预防的患者需要紧急做 CT 检查。下列哪项方案是正确的?
一名患者向护理助理询问一种新药的副作用。助理应怎么做?
A patient with septic shock remains hypotensive, with a mean arterial pressure of 58 mmHg, after adequate IV fluids. What should the nurse anticipate?
Which adverse effects should be monitored for in a patient receiving IV gentamicin?
A patient two days after abdominal surgery coughs and says something "gave way". The wound has opened and bowel is visible. What should the nurse do first?
A healthy patient's result is slightly outside the laboratory reference range, and all other results are normal. Which statement best explains why this can happen?
The nurse teaches a patient starting lithium. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient is starting lamotrigine. Which adverse effect should the patient report at once?
A drug is ordered at 5 micrograms/kg/min for an 80 kg patient. The infusion contains 1,600 micrograms per mL. What rate in mL/h is needed?
Why is a non-selective beta-blocker such as propranolol usually avoided in a patient with asthma?
一名服用达比加群的患者发生严重消化道出血。可使用哪种特异性逆转剂?
A patient on ciclosporin or tacrolimus asks about grapefruit juice. Which advice is correct?
一名老年 2 型糖尿病患者血糖 48 mmol/L,渗透压 365 mOsm/kg,无明显酮体,意识混乱。首要任务是什么?
内镜检查前,哪个评分用于评估上消化道出血的风险?
In week 5 of radiotherapy, the skin in the treatment field is broken, moist and painful. What should the nurse do?
在 30 周时,哪个宫高与预期的生长相符?
A newborn whose mother had a fever and prolonged rupture of membranes is well at birth. Why does the nurse monitor this baby closely?
How can the nurse best support a child with autism on a children's ward?
A 6-month-old has just learned to roll over. Which safety advice is most urgent now?
一名因双相障碍服用拉莫三嗪的患者出现新的皮疹。护士应怎么做?
A nurse suspects that a patient is hiding his tablets in his cheek and later spitting them out. What is the best approach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 37.5 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1½ tsp,每 6 小时一次,共 14 天。混悬液每瓶 100 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
一个药瓶中含有 2 g 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 9.2 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 10 mL。医嘱为 160 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
处方为 710 单位的药物,药液规格为 1000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋中含有 1 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 4 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 06:30 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 10 次/分,SpO₂ 99%吸室内空气,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 82 次/分,清醒,体温 36.1 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 90%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 114 次/分,清醒,体温 36.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: A · A laxative
Because opioid-induced constipation is so common, a regular laxative is usually prescribed with regular opioids, and bowel movements are monitored.
答案: C · Up to 2 hours before
Standard guidance allows clear fluids up to 2 hours and food up to 6 hours before elective anaesthesia. Long fasting causes thirst, dehydration and discomfort without added safety.
答案: A · Hold it away from the uniform and place it straight into a linen bag
Soiled linen is rolled up, held away from the uniform and placed directly into a laundry bag at the bedside. Shaking linen spreads organisms into the air, and the floor is a contaminated surface.
答案: A · 患者戴口罩,提前通知 CT 室,工作人员佩戴呼吸器
紧急检查不应延误,但患者应佩戴外科口罩以阻挡颗粒,并规划好转运路线,同时通知接收科室的工作人员,使其能保护自己和其他患者。
答案: B · 说护士会来回答,并告诉护士
关于药物的患者教育是护理职责。助理把问题转交给护士,这样患者可以获得符合其情况的准确信息。
答案: D · A vasopressor, such as norepinephrine, to raise the pressure
If hypotension continues after fluid resuscitation, a vasopressor such as norepinephrine is started to keep the MAP at least 65 mmHg. Diuretics and beta-blockers would worsen perfusion.
答案: D · Kidney damage and hearing loss
Gentamicin is nephrotoxic and ototoxic. Blood levels and renal function are monitored, and any tinnitus, dizziness or hearing change is reported.
答案: D · Cover the wound with sterile, saline-moistened dressings and get urgent surgical help
Evisceration is a surgical emergency. The exposed bowel is covered with sterile moist dressings, the patient is positioned to reduce tension on the abdomen (for example knees bent), kept nil by mouth and reviewed urgently.
答案: A · Ranges cover about 95% of healthy people, so some fall outside
A reference range is usually the central 95% of results from a healthy population, so about 1 in 20 healthy people will have a value just outside it. The result is interpreted with the clinical picture and previous values, and repeated if needed.核对依据: How to Understand Your Lab Results · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · "I will cut out salt from my diet completely to stay healthy"
A sudden fall in sodium intake makes the kidneys keep more sodium and lithium, raising the lithium level towards toxicity. Patients keep a normal, steady salt intake, drink enough fluids, report fluid loss and avoid NSAIDs unless approved.
答案: C · Any new skin rash
Lamotrigine can cause serious skin reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome. The dose is increased slowly, especially with valproate, and any rash must be assessed promptly.
答案: B · 15 mL/h
5 × 80 = 400 micrograms/min, × 60 = 24,000 micrograms/h, ÷ 1,600 micrograms/mL = 15 mL/h. Weight-based infusions are double-checked because errors are easy to make.
答案: C · It can cause bronchospasm by blocking beta-2 receptors
Beta-2 receptors in the airways mediate bronchodilation. Blocking them can trigger severe bronchospasm in asthma and also blunts the effect of salbutamol. Cardioselective beta-1 blockers are safer but still used with caution.
答案: C · 依达赛珠单抗
依达赛珠单抗与达比加群结合,数分钟内逆转其作用。Xa 因子抑制剂使用安得克萨(andexanet alfa)(无此药时用凝血酶原复合物浓缩剂)。鱼精蛋白逆转肝素,维生素 K 逆转华法林。氨甲环酸可辅助止血,但不是逆转剂。
答案: D · Avoid it, because it can raise the drug levels
Grapefruit inhibits the CYP3A4 enzyme and can raise ciclosporin and tacrolimus levels, leading to toxicity. Patients are advised to avoid it, and to check before starting any new medicine or supplement.
答案: A · 谨慎静脉补液,并密切检查渗透压、血钠和血糖
HHS 首先用静脉补液治疗,单靠补液往往就能降低血糖。渗透压迅速下降有脑水肿风险,所以要逐渐降低。如果有酮体,或补液后血糖不再下降,则以低速率加用胰岛素。由于血栓风险高,VTE 预防很重要。
答案: A · Glasgow-Blatchford 评分
Glasgow-Blatchford 评分使用尿素、血红蛋白、收缩压、脉搏、黑便、晕厥、肝病和心力衰竭,来识别需要干预的患者。完整的 Rockall 评分在内镜检查后使用。
答案: C · Report it, keep it clean and use a non-adherent dressing
Moist desquamation is a more severe radiation skin reaction. The radiotherapy team is informed; the area is kept clean and covered with non-adherent dressings, avoiding adhesive on the skin, and analgesia is given. Infection is watched for.
答案: B · 29 cm
30 周时预期宫高约为 28–32 cm。与孕周相差超过 2–3 cm 时应随访,通常做超声检查。
答案: A · The baby has a higher risk of early sepsis
Maternal fever, prolonged rupture of membranes and intra-amniotic infection are risk factors for early-onset sepsis. Many protocols require observation of vital signs and feeding, and sometimes blood tests or antibiotics.
答案: B · Keep routines predictable, reduce noise and use visual schedules
Predictable routines, consistent staff, a quiet environment, preparation with pictures or social stories and using the child's own communication methods reduce distress. Parents can advise on triggers and calming strategies.
答案: A · Never leave her alone on a changing table, bed or sofa
Rolling makes falls from raised surfaces the main immediate risk, so a hand should always stay on the baby on any raised surface. Cupboard locks and kitchen safety become important as she starts to crawl and pull to stand.
答案: C · 及时上报,因为这可能是严重皮肤反应的开始
拉莫三嗪可引起 Stevens–Johnson 综合征,尤其是在治疗早期或剂量增加过快时。任何皮疹都需要及时的医疗评估。
答案: C · Check his mouth after each dose, as policy allows, and explore why he does not want it
Mouth checks or liquid forms, as permitted, can confirm that medicine is taken. Understanding the reasons, such as side effects or beliefs about the drug, helps the team address the problem with the patient.
答案: T = 99.5 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 5
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.8 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: V = 0.71 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: R = 60 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1920 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 14.2 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 14 h 10 min,所以袋子大约在 20:40 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 1
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
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