感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
护理诊断与医疗诊断有何不同?
An infusion pump alarms "occlusion". What should the nurse check first?
对于采取接触传播预防的患者,下列哪种设备使用方法是正确的?
护士不确定无菌手套是否碰到了无菌区的边缘。正确的做法是什么?
护士发现一名患者躺在床边的地板上。首要行动是什么?
一名心力衰竭患者气短,双肺有湿啰音。哪种行动顺序是正确的?
A patient on insulin reports nightmares, night sweats and morning headaches. What should be suspected?
Soon after starting chemotherapy for a high-grade lymphoma, a patient has rising potassium, phosphate and uric acid with falling urine output. What is the most likely cause?
A patient with diabetes is found unconscious with a blood glucose of 38 mg/dL (2.1 mmol/L). Which treatment is appropriate?
A patient receiving parenteral nutrition with lipid emulsion has a triglyceride level of 620 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L). Why is this result important?
A patient must mix regular (soluble) insulin and NPH (isophane) insulin in one syringe. What is the correct order?
为什么治疗结核病时常常同时给予吡哆醇(维生素 B6)和异烟肼?
Virchow's triad describes three factors that promote venous thrombosis. Which patient factor represents venous stasis?
A patient's blood gas shows pH 7.26, PaCO₂ 9.0 kPa (68 mmHg) and bicarbonate 25 mmol/L. What does this show?
Why may a person with long-standing diabetes have a heart attack without typical chest pain?
A patient taking an SGLT2 inhibitor is booked for major surgery. Which statement is correct?
Which liver function test pattern suggests bile duct obstruction?
哪位患者使用术后阿片类药物 PCA 时发生呼吸抑制的风险最高?
如何区分头颅血肿与先锋头(产瘤)?
A newborn has a small upper lip with a smooth philtrum, short eye openings and a small head. Which exposure during pregnancy should be considered?
Which measure should be avoided in a sickle cell pain crisis?
Which finding helps to distinguish epiglottitis from croup?
A severely depressed older patient says, "My insides have rotted away; I am already dead." Which type of delusion is this?
A patient in DBT feels a strong urge to self-harm after a distressing phone call. Which DBT skill module is designed to help her get through this moment without making things worse?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 17:15(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 23:20 开始,到次日早晨 08:45 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
某患者体重 90 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 7.5 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一袋输液在 250 mL 中含 25000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 2000 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
医嘱要求以 30 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 10 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋中含有 4 g 药物,溶于 500 mL。医嘱为每分钟 3 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 10:30 开始用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 13:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 无损害; 潮湿程度: 很少潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: D · 它描述患者对健康问题的反应
医疗诊断说出疾病名称,例如肺炎。护理诊断描述患者的需求或反应,例如气体交换受损或有跌倒的危险,这些是护理工作要解决的问题。
答案: B · The clamps, the tubing for kinks and the cannula site
An occlusion alarm means the flow is blocked, for example by a closed clamp, kinked tubing, a bent arm or a blocked cannula. The nurse checks from the bag to the patient.
答案: A · 为该患者专用听诊器和血压袖带
听诊器、袖带等非关键设备应专用于该患者,或在用于其他患者之前进行清洁和消毒。
答案: C · 将手套视为已污染并更换
原则是“有疑问,即视为非无菌”。无菌区的边缘是非无菌的,所以应更换手套。在不确定的情况下继续操作会使患者面临感染风险。
答案: B · 在移动患者之前,评估其反应性和损伤情况
护士首先检查反应性、呼吸和头部外伤或髋部骨折等损伤。然后才在帮助下安全地移动患者。通知医疗人员,之后再完成报告。
答案: C · 坐起,按医嘱给氧,然后联系医疗人员
坐直可减少回心血量并缓解呼吸,氧气治疗缺氧。然后联系医疗人员并准备利尿剂。平躺或静脉补液会加重肺淤血。
答案: B · Night-time hypoglycaemia
Nocturnal hypoglycaemia can cause sweating, restless sleep, nightmares and morning headache. Checking glucose overnight and reviewing insulin doses can confirm and correct it.
答案: A · Tumour lysis syndrome
Rapid tumour cell death releases potassium, phosphate and nucleic acids (forming uric acid), which can cause AKI and arrhythmias. Prevention includes IV hydration and drugs to lower uric acid.
答案: B · Glucagon by injection, or IV dextrose as prescribed
A patient who cannot swallow safely must not receive anything by mouth because of the risk of aspiration. Glucagon (injected or intranasal) or IV dextrose raises the glucose; once awake and able to swallow, the patient is given oral carbohydrate and a snack.核对依据: Hypoglycemia · MedlinePlus (NIH); Low blood sugar · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: B · It raises the risk of acute pancreatitis
Triglycerides are monitored in patients receiving lipid emulsions, because high levels can cause pancreatitis and show that lipid is not being cleared. The result is reported, and the lipid dose may be reduced or held.核对依据: Triglycerides Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: A · Draw up the clear regular insulin first, then the cloudy NPH insulin
Drawing up regular insulin first prevents NPH from contaminating the regular insulin vial. NPH is gently rolled, not shaken, to mix it.
答案: D · 预防周围神经病变
异烟肼会引起吡哆醇缺乏,可导致周围神经病变。慢乙酰化者、营养不良者以及糖尿病或酒精依赖患者的风险更大。
答案: A · Immobility after major surgery
Virchow's triad is stasis of blood, vessel wall injury and hypercoagulability. Immobility, long journeys and heart failure cause stasis. Surgery and trauma injure vessel walls. Oestrogen, cancer, pregnancy and inherited thrombophilias increase coagulability.
答案: A · Acute respiratory acidosis
A low pH with raised PaCO₂ is respiratory acidosis. A normal bicarbonate (about 22–26 mmol/L) shows the kidneys have not yet compensated, so the problem is acute, as in opioid toxicity, exhaustion or an acute COPD exacerbation. Treatment targets ventilation.
答案: B · Nerve damage can blunt the pain signals
Autonomic neuropathy can make a myocardial infarction "silent" or atypical, with breathlessness, fatigue, nausea or sweating rather than chest pain. A low threshold for an ECG is needed.
答案: C · It is usually paused in the days before surgery
Fasting, surgery and dehydration increase the risk of euglycaemic DKA with SGLT2 inhibitors. Guidance usually advises stopping them in the days before major surgery and restarting when the patient is eating and drinking normally.
答案: D · High bilirubin with a markedly raised ALP and GGT
Cholestasis raises alkaline phosphatase and gamma-GT, with conjugated bilirubin. Hepatocellular injury, such as hepatitis, mainly raises ALT and AST.
答案: A · 未用过阿片类药物、患有睡眠呼吸暂停并同时服用镇静药的老年患者
危险因素包括未用过阿片类药物、高龄、阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停、肥胖、肾功能或肝功能受损、肺部疾病以及同时使用镇静药(苯二氮䓬类、加巴喷丁类)。这些患者需要更密切地监测镇静程度、呼吸频率和饱和度,有时需要持续监测。
答案: C · 头颅血肿不越过颅缝
产瘤是头皮水肿,出生时即存在,越过颅缝,数日内消退。头颅血肿是受颅缝限制的骨膜下出血;出生后才出现,持续数周,并可加重黄疸。
答案: B · Alcohol
Fetal alcohol syndrome features include a smooth philtrum, thin upper lip, short palpebral fissures and microcephaly, often with growth and developmental problems.
答案: C · Cold packs on the painful area
Cold causes vasoconstriction and can increase sickling, so cold packs are avoided. Warmth, hydration, effective analgesia (often including opioids) and oxygen if hypoxic are used.
答案: C · Drooling, high fever and a toxic look, without a barking cough
Epiglottitis typically starts suddenly with high fever, drooling, difficulty swallowing and a toxic appearance; the child sits forward and there is little cough. Croup is usually viral, with a barking cough and hoarseness after cold symptoms.
答案: A · Nihilistic
Nihilistic delusions are beliefs that the self, the body or the world does not exist or has been destroyed. They can occur in psychotic depression and require urgent assessment, including of nutrition and suicide risk.
答案: A · Distress tolerance
Distress tolerance skills help a person cope with intense emotion in a crisis without acting on harmful urges, for example through distraction, self-soothing or changing body temperature.
答案: 5:15 PM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 565 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 168.8 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 20 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 5 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: R = 22.5 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: B = 425 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 775 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 15
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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