感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a liquid medicine be measured in a medicine cup?
一名老年患者身上有原因不明、新旧不一的瘀青,而照护者总是替其回答问题。护士应该怎么做?
A nurse’s hands are dry and cracked from frequent hand hygiene. What is the best approach?
一名重度痴呆患者夜间独自下床,已经跌倒两次。哪种方案最恰当?
On a postpartum unit, which patient is the most appropriate to assign to an LPN/LVN?
A provider asks a nurse to perform a procedure that is outside the nurse’s scope of practice. What should the nurse do?
Which mask is required for staff during an aerosol-generating procedure on a patient with a respiratory infection spread by aerosols?
一名术后患者心率 115 次/分,体温 38.6 °C,呼吸 26 次/分,快速补液后血压仍为 85/50 mmHg。这最可能提示什么?
A patient's eGFR has fallen to 24 mL/min/1.73 m². Which prescribed drug should the nurse question before giving it?
A patient receiving IV magnesium sulfate has a respiratory rate of 9/min and absent patellar reflexes. After stopping the infusion, which medication should the nurse expect to give?
How does sucralfate help a peptic ulcer heal?
A patient taking metoprolol is also started on verapamil. Which adverse effect is most likely?
A patient with a regular narrow-complex tachycardia of 180/min is alert with a normal blood pressure. What is usually tried first?
一名服用比索洛尔和地尔硫䓬的患者头晕,心率 38 次/分,血压 82/50 mmHg。最恰当的首要应对是什么?
Which group of drugs is a well-known cause of SIADH and hyponatraemia, especially in older people?
During a TURP, a patient becomes confused and nauseated, with a slow pulse and a raised BP. The sodium is 121 mmol/L. What is most likely?
Why is IV albumin often given after a large-volume paracentesis?
A patient with a PICC line develops swelling and aching of the same arm and prominent veins on the chest. What should the nurse suspect?
A preterm baby on feeds develops a swollen abdomen, bloody stools and feeding intolerance. Which condition is suspected?
A woman with an epidural in labour now has a temperature of 38.0 °C (100.4 °F). Which statement is most accurate?
What is a normal capillary refill time in a child?
9 个月婴儿的哪项发现最需要尽快进行发育随访?
Which effects of methadone should the nurse monitor for?
A nurse suspects that a patient is hiding his tablets in his cheek and later spitting them out. What is the best approach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 139.079 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了3 杯 / 茶, 1 fl oz / 果汁, 1½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, ½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 30 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 30 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一名患者身高 179 cm,体重 74 kg。医嘱为 75 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 60 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 460 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 50 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 06:00 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 60 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 团队的目标是平均动脉压至少为 70 mmHg。一位患者的收缩压为 100 mmHg。使用 MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3,仍能使 MAP 达到 70 mmHg 的最低舒张压DBP是多少?
答案: A · At eye level, reading the lowest point of the curved surface
The cup is placed on a flat surface and read at eye level at the bottom of the meniscus. An oral syringe is more accurate for small volumes.
答案: D · 记录所见情况,并按照本单位的保护(safeguarding)程序处理
新旧不一的瘀青和控制欲强的照护者可能是虐待的迹象。护士应尽可能单独与患者交谈,准确记录事实,并通过保护程序报告。
答案: D · Use the hand lotion approved by the facility to keep the skin intact
Cracked skin is harder to clean and harbors more organisms. Facility-approved lotions help keep the skin healthy without reducing the effect of hand antiseptics such as chlorhexidine.
答案: A · 低位床、床报警器、定时如厕巡视、夜灯和防滑袜
综合措施最能减少跌倒:低位床、报警器、定时巡视和如厕、良好的照明以及防滑鞋。四侧床栏、常规使用镇静剂和约束都会增加受伤风险。
答案: D · Day 1 after an uncomplicated vaginal birth, stable vital signs
A stable patient after an uncomplicated birth fits the LPN/LVN role. Heavy bleeding, magnesium infusions and new admissions with fever need RN assessment.
答案: C · Decline, explain why and suggest who can safely do it
Nurses must work within their legal scope of practice, even when asked by a provider. The nurse declines, explains the reason and helps find a suitable professional.
答案: A · A fit-tested respirator mask (such as FFP3 or N95)
Aerosol-generating procedures, such as intubation, release small infectious particles. Respirators that are fit-tested protect the wearer, while surgical masks mainly protect against droplets.
答案: A · 需要危重症团队紧急评估的感染性休克
感染征象伴补液无反应的低血压提示感染性休克。除抗生素和感染源控制外,很可能还需要血管活性药物和危重症团队介入。
答案: C · Metformin
Metformin is cleared by the kidneys, and it is contraindicated when the eGFR is below 30 mL/min/1.73 m² because of the risk of lactic acidosis. Insulin doses may also need adjustment, but insulin is not contraindicated.
答案: B · Calcium gluconate
Absent reflexes and slow breathing indicate magnesium toxicity. The infusion is stopped, the provider is called, the airway and breathing are supported, and IV calcium gluconate is given as prescribed to counteract magnesium.
答案: A · It forms a protective coating over the ulcer base
Sucralfate forms a gel-like barrier that sticks to the ulcer and protects it from acid and pepsin. It is taken on an empty stomach and can reduce the absorption of other drugs taken at the same time.
答案: A · Severe bradycardia and heart block
Beta blockers and non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (verapamil, diltiazem) both slow heart rate and AV conduction. Together they can cause severe bradycardia, heart block and heart failure.
答案: C · Vagal manoeuvres such as a modified Valsalva
In stable supraventricular tachycardia, vagal manoeuvres slow AV node conduction and can stop the rhythm. If they fail, IV adenosine is usually next. Electrical cardioversion is for patients with adverse features such as shock or chest pain.
答案: A · 呼叫紧急援助,进行 ABCDE 评估,并连接心脏监护仪
β 受体阻滞剂和减慢心率的钙通道阻滞剂对窦房结和房室结有叠加作用。伴有低血压的症状性心动过缓是急症:呼叫援助、监护、暂停这些药物,并按心动过缓流程预期使用阿托品,可能还需要起搏。
答案: B · SSRI antidepressants
SSRIs such as sertraline and citalopram can cause SIADH, particularly in older adults. Carbamazepine, some antipsychotics and some chemotherapy drugs are other causes. Sodium is checked if symptoms appear.
答案: B · TURP syndrome from absorbed irrigation fluid
In TURP syndrome, irrigating fluid is absorbed into the blood, causing fluid overload and dilutional hyponatraemia. Signs include confusion, nausea, bradycardia, hypertension and, if severe, seizures. It needs urgent medical treatment.
答案: C · To prevent low blood pressure and kidney injury from fluid shifts
Removing large volumes of ascites can lead to hypotension and kidney injury as fluid moves from the blood into the abdomen. Albumin keeps fluid in the circulation; BP and urine output are monitored.
答案: D · A catheter-related deep vein thrombosis
PICCs increase the risk of upper limb DVT. Arm swelling, pain and dilated superficial veins are reported for ultrasound assessment and possible anticoagulation; the line is not used until reviewed.
答案: D · Necrotising enterocolitis
Necrotising enterocolitis mainly affects preterm babies. Signs include abdominal distension, bilious aspirates, bloody stools and instability. Feeds are stopped and the baby is urgently reviewed. Breast milk lowers the risk.
答案: D · The epidural may cause it, but infection must be ruled out
Epidurals are associated with a rise in maternal temperature, but this cannot be assumed. Intra-amniotic infection must be considered, especially with prolonged rupture of membranes or fetal tachycardia.
答案: D · 2 seconds or less
A capillary refill time of 2 seconds or less is normal. A longer time suggests poor perfusion, as in dehydration or shock, though a cold environment can also prolong it.
答案: A · 婴儿只用一只手,忽略另一只手
约 18 个月之前出现明显的利手偏好,可能提示另一侧无力,例如脑瘫。不会走、怕生和没有清晰的词是 9 个月时的典型表现。
答案: B · Respiratory depression, sedation and a prolonged QT interval
Methadone can cause respiratory depression, especially when starting or with other sedatives, and it can prolong the QT interval. It has a long half-life, so toxicity can build up over several days.
答案: A · Check his mouth after each dose, as policy allows, and explore why he does not want it
Mouth checks or liquid forms, as permitted, can confirm that medicine is taken. Understanding the reasons, such as side effects or beliefs about the drug, helps the team address the problem with the patient.
答案: x = 139 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 765 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 450 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: D = 143.9 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: Δ = 10.4 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: U = 1.83 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 13:20 输完。
答案: B = 14
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: DBP = 55 mmHg
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
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