感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
如何测量毛细血管再充盈时间?
A urine culture reports a mixed growth of several organisms. What is the most likely explanation?
How should a portable oxygen cylinder be kept in a patient’s room?
Which position is especially dangerous for a patient in physical restraints?
A patient coughs hard after abdominal surgery, and loops of bowel appear through the opened wound. What does the nurse do first?
Which finding most suggests a tension pneumothorax rather than a simple pneumothorax?
A nurse suspects that an older patient is being financially abused by a relative. What should the nurse do?
A patient's hypoglycaemia was caused by a sulfonylurea such as gliclazide or glipizide. Why might they need monitoring for longer than usual?
A patient taking spironolactone asks about using a salt substitute. What should the nurse explain?
A stable patient's hemoglobin has been 13–14 g/dL for days. Today's result is 8.2 g/dL, but the patient feels well, the vital signs are normal and there is no bleeding. What should the nurse suspect first?
Which adverse effect is a well-known risk of zidovudine?
Why is the TPMT enzyme often tested before azathioprine is started?
How can a patient reduce wound pain when coughing after abdominal surgery?
Four hours after abdominal surgery, a patient's heart rate has risen from 84 to 122/min and they are restless and pale. BP is still 118/76 mmHg, and the surgical drain is filling with blood. What should the nurse conclude?
一名 SIADH 患者血钠 126 mmol/L,症状轻微。通常的一线治疗是什么?
A patient's potassium is 7.1 mmol/L, and the ECG shows peaked T waves and broad QRS complexes. What is the first treatment?
Why are antibody levels checked after a healthcare worker receives the hepatitis B vaccine?
A patient is booked for a urea breath test for H. pylori. Which medicine should usually be stopped 2 weeks before the test?
Which placental hormone causes insulin resistance in the second half of pregnancy?
A healthy newborn is jittery. Which finding helps tell jitteriness from a seizure?
What is the main purpose of medical play with a doll and real equipment before surgery?
在脑室腹腔分流术后的儿童中,哪项发现需要立即跟进?
A young person who took LSD at a festival is frightened by what he is seeing. What is the most helpful nursing approach?
一名神经性贪食患者的血清钾为 2.8 mmol/L。主要担忧是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 97.2 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血清肌酐结果为 121 µmol/L。按肌酐 1 mg/dL = 88.4 µmol/L,求以 mg/dL 表示的c。取到两位小数。
一名体重 7 kg 的儿童按 20 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 20 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 114 cm,体重 32 kg。医嘱为 25 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 2 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 50 mL 中含药 500 mg,以 15 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 16:00 开始以 150 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 75 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位头部损伤后的练习患者呼唤时睁眼,只发出无法理解的声音,如呻吟,最佳运动反应表现为:手臂异常屈曲(去皮质姿势)。 算出 GCS 并据此对头部损伤分级。点击你的答案。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名练习用新生儿出生后 1 分钟时:全身皮肤粉红,心率 80 次/分,刺激时哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏,活动活跃,呼吸良好,哭声响亮。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
答案: D · 按压皮肤约 5 秒,松开后计时看颜色多久恢复
按压指尖或胸骨,松开后数秒数直到颜色恢复。时间延长提示外周灌注不良,例如休克或脱水时。
答案: A · The sample was contaminated during collection
A mixed growth usually means skin or perineal bacteria contaminated the sample. A clean-catch midstream sample, or a sample from the catheter sampling port, gives a more reliable result.
答案: C · Secured upright in a stand or holder
Oxygen cylinders are under high pressure and can be damaged or cause injury if they fall. They are kept upright in a holder or cart, away from heat and flames.
答案: B · Lying face down (prone)
Restraining a person face down can restrict breathing and has caused deaths from positional asphyxia. Restrained patients are positioned to protect the airway and are watched closely.
答案: A · Cover the wound with sterile dressings moistened with saline
Evisceration is a surgical emergency. The nurse covers the organs with sterile saline-moistened dressings, stays with the patient, positions them to reduce strain and calls the surgeon at once.
答案: C · Trachea shifted away from the affected side, with low blood pressure
In tension pneumothorax, trapped air pushes the mediastinum to the other side, reducing venous return and blood pressure. It is life-threatening and needs immediate decompression.
答案: C · Raise the concern through the local safeguarding (adult protection) procedure
Financial abuse is a form of adult abuse. Nurses report concerns through safeguarding procedures, document facts accurately and involve the patient as appropriate.
答案: A · Sulfonylureas act for a long time, so hypoglycaemia can recur
Sulfonylureas stimulate insulin release and have a long duration of action. Hypoglycaemia can be prolonged or recur, so glucose is monitored closely after treatment.
答案: B · Most salt substitutes contain potassium and can raise the level too high
Spironolactone blocks aldosterone, so the kidneys keep potassium. Many salt substitutes are made of potassium chloride, and combining them with spironolactone can cause dangerous hyperkalemia, especially with kidney disease or ACE inhibitors.核对依据: Spironolactone · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2018); High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · A sample taken from the wrong patient
A sudden large change with no clinical change suggests a specimen error, such as wrong blood in the tube or dilution with IV fluid. The nurse assesses the patient, informs the provider and arranges a repeat sample with careful identification, while staying alert for true bleeding.
答案: A · Bone marrow suppression, especially anaemia
Zidovudine, a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, can cause anaemia and neutropenia. Blood counts are checked regularly during treatment.
答案: B · Low TPMT activity causes toxic levels and marrow suppression
Thiopurine methyltransferase helps inactivate azathioprine and mercaptopurine. People with low or absent TPMT activity need much lower doses or another drug to avoid life-threatening myelosuppression.
答案: D · Hold a pillow firmly against the wound while coughing
Splinting the incision with a pillow or folded towel supports the wound, reduces pain and makes effective coughing easier. Combined with good analgesia and deep breathing, this helps clear secretions and prevents atelectasis and pneumonia.
答案: B · Early haemorrhagic shock is likely, so escalate urgently
Rising heart rate, restlessness, pallor and visible bleeding are signs of compensated haemorrhagic shock. Waiting for hypotension delays treatment. The nurse escalates urgently, gives oxygen, ensures IV access and anticipates bloods, fluids or blood products and surgical review.
答案: B · 限制液体
在 SIADH 中,机体潴留水分。对轻至中度病例,一线治疗是限制液体,并治疗病因。低渗液体和去氨加压素会使血钠进一步降低。严重症状(惊厥、意识下降)需要在监护环境下使用高渗盐水。
答案: C · IV calcium gluconate
ECG changes mean the heart is at risk. IV calcium is given first to stabilise the myocardium, followed by insulin with glucose (and often nebulised salbutamol) to shift potassium into cells. Binders or dialysis then remove it.
答案: D · To confirm that the vaccine produced immunity
Some people do not develop protective anti-HBs antibodies after vaccination. Testing identifies non-responders, who may need further doses and advice after exposures.
答案: A · Omeprazole
PPIs suppress H. pylori and can give false-negative breath or stool tests, so they are usually stopped 2 weeks before. Antibiotics are usually stopped 4 weeks before testing.
答案: C · Human placental lactogen (hPL)
Human placental lactogen, together with other placental hormones, reduces maternal insulin sensitivity so more glucose is available to the fetus. This is why gestational diabetes usually appears in the second half of pregnancy.
答案: A · Jitteriness stops when the limb is gently held
Jitteriness is a rhythmic tremor that is stimulus-sensitive and stops when the limb is held or flexed. Seizures continue when restrained and may include eye deviation, apnoea or lip smacking. Glucose and calcium are checked in both.
答案: B · To let the child express fears and gain a sense of control
Therapeutic or medical play lets children explore equipment, act out procedures and show feelings they cannot put into words. It reduces anxiety and helps staff correct misunderstandings.
答案: C · 头痛、反复呕吐和嗜睡加重
头痛、呕吐、易激惹和嗜睡提示分流管堵塞或感染导致颅内压升高。在婴儿中,囟门膨隆和头围增大也是征象。
答案: B · Stay with him in a calm, quiet place and reassure him that the effects are from the drug and will pass
For a frightening hallucinogen experience, a calm setting, a supportive person and simple reassurance usually help. The nurse also monitors vital signs and watches for injury or other substances.
答案: D · 有发生危及生命的心律失常的风险
反复呕吐会导致低钾血症和代谢性碱中毒。钾 2.8 mmol/L 低得危险,可引起心律失常。患者需要心电监护,并按处方补钾。
答案: T = 36.2 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: c = 1.37 mg/dL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 7 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 25.17 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: D = 150 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = 725 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 4.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 4 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 20:40 输完。
答案: 重度
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 令人放心
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
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