感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
一名患者的桡动脉搏动不规则。应该如何计数?
Where must the final identity check before a blood transfusion take place?
患者在床上时,其病房里的垃圾桶起了小火。护士首先应做什么?
A nurse teaches an older adult about preventing falls at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient is raising his voice, pacing and clenching his fists. What should the nurse do first?
A patient taking an MAO inhibitor antidepressant is taught about diet. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A confused patient keeps trying to climb out of bed. Why are bed rails not automatically the answer?
A patient rescued from a house fire has soot around the mouth, singed nasal hairs and a hoarse voice. What is the main concern?
在慢性肾脏病中,血清磷酸盐升高通常伴有钙的哪种变化?
A patient with severe hypertriglyceridemia has a measured sodium of 128 mEq/L, but a measured serum osmolality is normal, and the patient has no symptoms. What is the most likely explanation?
Which statement about allopurinol is correct?
On admission, a patient's home medicine list includes warfarin for atrial fibrillation, but warfarin is not on the admission orders. What should the nurse do?
Why are beta-blockers often started after a myocardial infarction?
A patient taking ramipril and indapamide for hypertension starts regular ibuprofen for back pain. A week later, creatinine has risen sharply. What is the most likely cause?
An older patient with a long-term catheter has bacteria in the urine but no symptoms. What is usually appropriate?
A nurse teaches a patient about peritoneal dialysis. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Why should metoclopramide not be used for nausea in mechanical bowel obstruction?
A patient with a severe flare of ulcerative colitis develops abdominal distension, fever and tachycardia, and the stool frequency has dropped. What should the nurse suspect?
Which event in an Rh-negative, non-sensitised woman requires an extra dose of anti-D immunoglobulin?
护士应首先评估哪位产妇?
下列哪一组表现是儿童肾病综合征的典型表现?
在交班开始时,护士应首先评估哪名儿童?
一名服用抗精神病药的患者不停地来回踱步,并说他无法静坐。这称为什么?
ECT 治疗后即刻,一名患者在恢复区昏昏欲睡。护理的优先事项是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 200 cm。按 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以英寸表示的身高h。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 20:55 开始,到次日早晨 08:10 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
一个药瓶中含有 1 g 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 3.4 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 4 mL。医嘱为 500 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
你需要用 20%(w/v)储备液配制 100 mL 1%(w/v)溶液。 必须向储备液中加入多少水 W?
医嘱要求以 60 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 10:30 开始用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 15:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 28 次/分,SpO₂ 96%正在补充吸氧,血压 78/46 mmHg,脉搏 132 次/分,清醒,体温 39.0 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: A · 计数整整 60 秒,最好在心尖部计数
不规则的脉搏应计数整整一分钟。用听诊器在心尖部计数更准确,因为有些搏动太弱,在腕部摸不到。
答案: D · At the bedside, with the patient and their wristband
The final check matches the patient's identity, by asking and from the wristband, with the blood bag and prescription at the bedside. Most wrong-blood events come from checks done away from the patient.
答案: B · 把患者从紧急危险中转移出来
首先是救援:把患者从火场转移开。然后拉响警报、关门控制火势,并在安全时灭火。打开窗户会给火焰提供氧气。
答案: A · “I keep small rugs in the hall so my feet stay warm.”
Loose rugs are a common cause of trips and falls and should be removed or secured. Night lights, grab bars and non-slip footwear all reduce fall risk.
答案: B · Speak calmly, keep a safe distance and invite him to talk about what is wrong
Early verbal de-escalation, with a calm voice and a safe distance, is the first approach for rising agitation. Restraint is a last resort, and crowding the patient can make things worse.
答案: D · “I can still eat aged cheese and cured salami.”
MAO inhibitors with tyramine-rich foods, such as aged cheese and cured meats, can cause a hypertensive crisis. Patients avoid these foods, check medicines with a pharmacist and report a severe headache.
答案: A · Patients can be seriously injured climbing over or becoming trapped in rails
Bed rails can cause entrapment or a fall from a greater height. Their use is based on an individual risk assessment; alternatives include a low bed, crash mats and closer observation.
答案: C · Airway swelling from inhalation injury
These signs suggest inhalation injury, which can cause rapid airway swelling and obstruction. Early senior anaesthetic review is needed, as early intubation may be required. Carbon monoxide poisoning must also be considered.
答案: B · 血清钙降低
当衰竭的肾脏潴留磷酸盐时,磷酸盐与钙结合,维生素 D 的活化减少,因此血清钙倾向于下降。这会导致继发性甲状旁腺功能亢进和骨病。核对依据: Hypocalcemia (StatPearls) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026); Phosphate in Blood · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023)
答案: D · Pseudohyponatremia, an artifact caused by very high lipids
Very high lipids or proteins take up part of the plasma volume, so some laboratory methods report a falsely low sodium. The osmolality and the sodium measured by direct methods are normal. Treating this "hyponatremia" would be harmful.
答案: D · It lowers uric acid over time and does not relieve the pain of an acute attack
Allopurinol reduces urate production and is taken daily to prevent attacks. Acute attacks are treated with NSAIDs, colchicine or corticosteroids, and a new rash on allopurinol must be reported.
答案: A · Clarify the omission with the prescriber (medication reconciliation)
Medication reconciliation compares the patient's home medicines with current orders to find omissions, duplications and errors. The nurse raises the difference with the prescriber, who decides whether to continue, hold or change the drug.
答案: D · They lower the heart's oxygen demand and reduce arrhythmias
Beta-blockers slow the heart and reduce contractility, lowering myocardial oxygen demand, and protect against arrhythmias. They are particularly beneficial when the ejection fraction is reduced. They are used cautiously in heart block, severe bradycardia, acute heart failure and asthma.
答案: C · An ACE inhibitor, diuretic and NSAID together reducing kidney perfusion
NSAIDs constrict the afferent arteriole, ACE inhibitors dilate the efferent arteriole and diuretics reduce volume. Together (sometimes called the "triple whammy") they can cause acute kidney injury. The NSAID is stopped, and the prescriber reviews the other drugs.
答案: C · No antibiotics, as long as there are no symptoms
Nearly all long-term catheters become colonised. Treating asymptomatic bacteriuria does not improve outcomes and promotes resistance. Antibiotics are reserved for symptomatic infection.
答案: A · "If the fluid is cloudy, I'll see if it clears next time."
Cloudy effluent may be the first sign of peritonitis and must be reported to the PD unit straight away, keeping the bag for testing. Waiting can allow a serious infection to develop.
答案: C · It increases gut movement against the blockage
Metoclopramide stimulates gastric and intestinal motility, which can worsen pain and risk perforation in complete mechanical obstruction. Other antiemetics are chosen.
答案: D · Toxic megacolon
Toxic megacolon is dilatation of the inflamed colon with systemic toxicity and a high risk of perforation. Antimotility drugs and opioids are avoided, an abdominal X-ray is done and the surgical team is involved.
答案: D · Amniocentesis
Any potentially sensitising event, such as amniocentesis, abdominal trauma, bleeding, miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy, can mix fetal and maternal blood. Anti-D is given after it to prevent antibody formation.
答案: C · 产后 1 小时:心率 118 次/分,宫底松软
产后第一小时子宫松软伴心动过速提示出血,需要立即评估。第 1 天的小血块、产后痛以及第 3 天的乳房胀痛都是预期的表现。
答案: B · 大量蛋白尿、血清白蛋白降低和全身性水肿
肾病综合征时,蛋白丢失使白蛋白降低并引起水肿,常最先出现在眼周。咽痛后出现可乐色尿和高血压提示链球菌感染后肾小球肾炎。
答案: C · 一名患细支气管炎的 2 岁儿童:呼吸频率 68 次/分,胸壁凹陷明显
呼吸急促和胸壁凹陷的儿童存在呼吸问题,可能迅速恶化。其他儿童的需要也很重要,但不会威胁气道、呼吸或循环。
答案: C · 静坐不能
静坐不能是一种内心的不安,伴有想要活动的冲动。它令人痛苦,可能被误认为是激越或焦虑,并与不依从治疗和自杀风险增加有关。
答案: A · 维持气道,让患者侧卧,并监测生命体征
ECT 后,在患者完全清醒之前,优先事项是气道和呼吸,同时监测生命体征和定向力。进食和行走要等患者清醒且吞咽安全之后。
答案: h = 78.7 in
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: t = 675 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 2 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: W = 95 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 60 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: t = 1.8 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = 260 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 375 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 12
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中度风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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