感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
An IV cannula site is swollen, cool and pale, and the infusion has slowed. What should the nurse do first?
测量血压时,患者的手臂垂在身体一侧,低于心脏水平。这会如何影响读数?
A patient has severe neutropenia after chemotherapy. Which route for measuring temperature should be avoided?
A nurse discovers that an insulin infusion was programmed using the wrong drug concentration in the pump library. What should the nurse do first?
Two nursing assistants argue loudly at the station about their assignments. What is the charge nurse’s best first step?
At the end of a shift, the nurse’s relief has not arrived and the patients are acutely ill. What should the nurse do?
Which blood result often rises in an upper GI bleed because blood is digested in the gut?
A patient is recognised by the team as being in the last days of life. Which approach is correct?
为什么慢性肾脏病患者常有贫血?
A patient with cirrhosis and ascites has fever and abdominal tenderness. The ascitic fluid neutrophil count is 400 cells/mm³. What does this indicate?
他汀类药物的哪种严重但罕见的不良反应需要患者立即报告?
A patient taking hydralazine for several months develops joint pain, fever and a rash. Anti-histone antibodies are positive. What is the most likely diagnosis?
为什么右心室梗死时使用硝酸酯类要格外谨慎?
一名服用阿哌沙班治疗心房颤动的患者已预约择期手术。下列哪项说法体现了正确做法?
A stroke patient speaks fluently, but the words make little sense, and they do not follow simple instructions. Which type of aphasia is this?
The nurse has four patients with diabetes. Which one needs to be seen first?
什么是麻痹性肠梗阻?
A patient admitted for an elective general anaesthetic mentions that they ate a slice of toast 3 hours ago. What should the nurse do?
Which baby is at greatest risk of early-onset group B streptococcal infection?
A newborn passed no meconium by 48 hours and has a swollen abdomen and green vomiting. Which condition should be suspected?
Which signs in a 2-day-old baby suggest sepsis?
A 6-year-old boy has had a limp and mild hip pain for several weeks. Imaging shows avascular necrosis of the femoral head. What is the diagnosis?
一名患者说:“我要吃药丸、账单、山丘、蒸馏器。”(I'll take the pill, the bill, the hill, the still.)这称为什么?
During a ward community meeting, several patients complain that the ward is too noisy at night. What reflects a therapeutic milieu?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 10 lb 11 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血清肌酐结果为 4.5 mg/dL。按肌酐 1 mg/dL = 88.4 µmol/L,求以 µmol/L 表示的c,取到最接近的整数。
某患者体重 15 kg,医嘱为单次给药 25 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
处方为 420 单位的药物,药液规格为 1000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 1280 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一组输液以 25 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 300 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 10:00 开始用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 17:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 98%正在补充吸氧,血压 90/54 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,清醒,体温 39.6 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 98%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 35.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: C · Stop the infusion and remove the cannula
These are signs of infiltration. The infusion is stopped, the cannula removed, the limb elevated and the event documented. A new cannula is sited elsewhere if still needed.
答案: A · 读数假性偏高
手臂低于心脏水平会增加静水压,使读数偏高。应让患者坐好放松,并把手臂支撑在心脏水平。
答案: A · Rectal
Rectal thermometers, suppositories and enemas can damage the rectal mucosa and introduce bacteria into the blood of a patient with almost no neutrophils. Other routes are used instead.
答案: D · Stop the infusion and check the patient’s blood glucose
A concentration error means the dose delivered was wrong. The nurse stops the infusion, assesses the patient including blood glucose, treats as needed, notifies the prescriber and reports the event.
答案: C · Meet both of them privately to hear each side
Talking with both staff members privately allows the charge nurse to understand the problem and look for a fair solution. Ignoring the conflict or acting without facts usually makes it worse.
答案: B · Stay and tell the charge nurse, and hand over before leaving
The nurse must not leave patients without handing over to another qualified nurse. Telling the charge nurse allows staffing to be arranged safely.
答案: D · Urea (blood urea nitrogen)
Blood proteins digested in the upper GI tract are absorbed and converted to urea, so urea rises out of proportion to creatinine. Urea is part of the Glasgow-Blatchford bleeding score.
答案: D · Review and stop treatments that no longer help, and focus on comfort
When dying is recognised, non-beneficial interventions are stopped and anticipatory medicines for symptoms such as pain, agitation and secretions are prescribed. Clear communication with the patient and family is essential.
答案: A · 肾脏产生的促红细胞生成素减少,而它驱动红细胞的生成
患病的肾脏产生的促红细胞生成素减少,因此骨髓生成的红细胞减少。治疗可包括促红细胞生成药物和铁剂。
答案: D · Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
An ascitic neutrophil count of 250 cells/mm³ or more indicates spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, which is treated with antibiotics. It can occur without classic signs, so new confusion or worsening kidney function in cirrhosis should also prompt a diagnostic paracentesis.
答案: B · 不明原因的肌肉疼痛或无力
他汀类可引起肌病,极少数会进展为伴肾损伤的横纹肌溶解。不明原因的肌痛应进行检查,例如测定肌酸激酶。
答案: C · Drug-induced lupus
Hydralazine and procainamide are classic causes of drug-induced lupus, especially in slow acetylators. Symptoms usually resolve after the drug is stopped.
答案: C · 右心室依赖前负荷,血压可能急剧下降
右心室梗死时,心输出量在很大程度上依赖静脉充盈。硝酸酯类等静脉扩张药(以及利尿剂或阿片类药物)可导致血压急剧下降。这类患者通常需要谨慎补液。
答案: A · 根据出血风险和肾功能,暂停用药一段设定的时间
由于 DOAC 在数天内失效,通常根据手术的出血风险和肾功能,在术前暂停一段规定的时间(常为 1–3 天);一般不需要肝素桥接。维生素 K 不能逆转 DOAC。
答案: D · Receptive (Wernicke's) aphasia
Receptive aphasia comes from damage to Wernicke's area in the dominant temporal lobe. Speech is fluent but often meaningless, and comprehension is impaired. Patients are often unaware of their errors.
答案: B · A patient with a glucose of 2.8 mmol/L (50 mg/dL) who is sweaty and confused
Hypoglycaemia with confusion can rapidly lead to seizures and loss of consciousness, so it is treated at once. A moderately high glucose without symptoms, diet questions and routine tests can wait.
答案: D · 没有物理性阻塞,但肠蠕动丧失
麻痹性肠梗阻是蠕动停止的功能性梗阻,常见于腹部手术后、使用阿片类药物、感染或电解质紊乱(尤其是低钾)。肠鸣音减弱或消失。
答案: D · Inform the anaesthetist, as surgery may be delayed
Solid food is usually stopped 6 hours before anaesthesia because of aspiration risk. The anaesthetist decides whether to delay or change the plan; the nurse reports accurately and does not hide the information.
答案: D · A baby of a GBS-positive mother with no antibiotics
GBS colonisation, no intrapartum antibiotics, prolonged rupture of membranes, maternal fever and prematurity increase the risk. Intrapartum IV antibiotics greatly lower early-onset GBS disease.
答案: B · Hirschsprung disease
Delayed meconium, abdominal distension and bilious vomiting suggest bowel obstruction, such as Hirschsprung disease. Bilious vomiting in a newborn is always an emergency.
答案: A · Unstable temperature, poor feeding, lethargy and breathing difficulty
Neonatal sepsis may present with temperature instability, poor feeding, lethargy, irritability, apnoea, breathing difficulty or jaundice. Early-onset sepsis, often due to group B streptococcus, needs prompt cultures and IV antibiotics.
答案: D · Legg–Calvé–Perthes disease
Perthes disease is avascular necrosis of the femoral head in children, most often boys aged about 4–8 years. It presents with a limp and hip, thigh or knee pain; treatment aims to keep the femoral head well positioned in the socket while it heals.
答案: A · 音联联想(clang association)
音联联想以押韵或声音联系词语,见于躁狂和精神病。模仿言语是重复他人的话;新语症是新创造的词。
答案: B · Discuss the problem openly and involve patients in finding a solution
In a therapeutic milieu, the ward environment itself is used for treatment. Shared decision-making in community meetings builds responsibility, social skills and trust.
答案: m = 4.86 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: c = 398 µmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 375 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 0.42 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 160 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
这超过了 25% 的增幅:大多数医院要求你联系开医嘱者,而不是加快补输,并评估患者是否存在液体过多。
答案: t = 3 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: I = 950 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 150 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 7
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
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