感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
At what angle is an intramuscular injection given?
ABO 血型不相容输血最常见的原因是什么?
一名疑似结核病患者住在负压病房。下列哪项做法是正确的?
A patient restrained because of violent behavior is now calm, oriented and following instructions. What should the nurse do?
A nurse gives IV morphine for severe pain. When should the nurse reassess the pain and sedation?
Which patient is the most appropriate to assign to an LPN/LVN?
Why is blood pressure monitored closely in a patient with an epidural infusion?
An older patient found on the floor after lying there for many hours has dark brown urine and a very high creatine kinase. What is the main risk?
When do the blood counts usually reach their lowest point (nadir) after many standard chemotherapy regimens?
哪种结果模式符合 SIADH?
1000 mL of IV fluid is to be given over 8 hours with a pump. What rate should be set?
During an alteplase infusion for acute ischaemic stroke, the patient develops a sudden severe headache and her level of consciousness falls. What is the nurse's first action?
Which finding shows that long-standing hypertension has caused target organ damage?
A patient being treated for pulmonary TB repeatedly misses doses and stops when they feel better. Which strategy is most effective?
一次癫痫发作已持续五分钟且仍在继续。通常的一线药物治疗是什么?
A man with chronic urinary retention is catheterised. Over the next hours he passes very large volumes of urine. What is the main nursing concern?
Which technique is correct when giving a prefilled low molecular weight heparin injection?
大面积烧伤后第 3 天,患者开始排出大量尿液。护士应预期哪种电解质问题?
A woman who has had a caesarean asks when she can drive again. Which answer is most accurate?
A multiparous woman arrives with strong contractions and the baby is born within an hour of their onset. What should the nurse monitor closely afterwards?
Which presentation is typical of coeliac disease in a toddler some months after cereals are introduced?
A few weeks after diagnosis of type 1 diabetes, a child's insulin needs fall a lot. The parents think the diabetes is cured. What should the nurse explain?
In a therapy group, one member talks constantly and interrupts others. What should the group leader do?
A school nurse is teaching about inhalant use such as sniffing glue or aerosols. Which risk should be stressed?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 102.5 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血糖结果为 234 mg/dL。按葡萄糖 1 mmol/L = 18 mg/dL,求以 mmol/L 表示的c。取到一位小数。
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.2 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
你需要用 50%(w/v)储备液配制 100 mL 1%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 1000 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 370 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
25 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 12 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 12 units/kg/h,患者体重 108 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 500 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 17 mL/h 输注。患者体重 94 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 12:15 开始用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 19:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 60 次/分,血压为 121/73 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 86%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 37.1 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.42,PaCO₂ 59 mmHg (7.9 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 37 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 133,Cl⁻ 90,HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。使用 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) 计算 Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)。保留两位小数。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,所以心房和心室以不同的频率搏动。测量 P–P 间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分,1500 法,取整数)。
答案: D · 90 degrees
Intramuscular injections are given at 90 degrees so the needle passes through the skin and fat into the muscle. Intradermal injections use about 10–15 degrees.
答案: D · 患者或标本识别错误
大多数输错血事件源于识别错误,例如标本标签贴错或省略了床旁身份核对。在每一步都确认患者身份可以预防这类事件。
答案: A · 除进出外,保持房门关闭
房门应保持关闭,以维持流入房间的气流。应限制访客,并根据规定指导其做好呼吸防护。
答案: A · Remove the restraints, because the reason for them has ended
Restraints are used only as long as needed to keep people safe. Once the patient no longer presents a danger, the restraints are removed, even if the order has not yet expired.
答案: C · Within about 15–30 minutes
IV opioids act within minutes, so the nurse reassesses pain, sedation and breathing within about 15–30 minutes. Oral analgesics are usually reassessed later, after about an hour.
答案: B · A patient with a long-standing tracheostomy who needs routine suctioning and care
Routine tracheostomy care for a stable, long-term patient fits the LPN/LVN role in most settings. Fresh or bleeding tracheostomies, new admissions and titrated IV drugs need RN assessment.
答案: C · The local anaesthetic can block sympathetic nerves and cause hypotension
Epidural local anaesthetic can cause vasodilation and hypotension. Nurses also monitor sedation, respiratory rate, block height, motor function and the catheter site.
答案: A · Acute kidney injury from rhabdomyolysis
Prolonged pressure on muscles causes rhabdomyolysis, releasing myoglobin and potassium. Myoglobin can block kidney tubules; treatment includes IV fluids and close monitoring of urine output and electrolytes.
答案: A · About 7–14 days after treatment
Chemotherapy damages dividing marrow cells, but mature neutrophils and platelets already in the blood survive for a while, so counts usually fall to a nadir about 7–14 days later, depending on the drug. Infection and bleeding risks are highest then.
答案: A · 血清钠低、血清渗透压低、尿液浓缩
抗利尿激素过多导致水潴留,稀释血液(钠和渗透压低),而尿液反常地浓缩。钠高伴尿液非常稀是尿崩症的模式。
答案: B · 125 mL/h
1000 mL ÷ 8 h = 125 mL/h. Infusion pumps are set in mL per hour.
答案: A · Stop the alteplase infusion and notify the provider urgently
A sudden headache and neurological decline during thrombolysis suggest intracranial haemorrhage. The infusion is stopped at once and the provider is called for urgent assessment and imaging.
答案: D · Left ventricular hypertrophy on the ECG
Target organ damage from hypertension includes left ventricular hypertrophy, retinopathy, chronic kidney disease with proteinuria, and stroke. Its presence changes treatment urgency and targets.
答案: C · Directly observed therapy with support for barriers to adherence
Directly observed therapy, where a health worker watches each dose, plus help with practical and social barriers, improves completion and reduces multidrug-resistant TB. Single-drug therapy or interrupted treatment breeds resistance.
答案: C · 苯二氮䓬类药物,如静脉劳拉西泮或颊黏膜咪达唑仑
持续五分钟或以上的发作(或反复发作且间歇期未恢复)按癫痫持续状态处理。首先给予苯二氮䓬类药物(有静脉通路时用静脉劳拉西泮;没有时用颊黏膜或鼻内咪达唑仑或直肠地西泮),发作持续时再用左乙拉西坦、苯妥英或丙戊酸等二线抗癫痫药。应检测血糖,仅在偏低时给予葡萄糖。
答案: B · Fluid and electrolyte loss from post-obstructive diuresis
After relief of chronic obstruction, the kidneys may pass large volumes of urine and salt. Hypovolaemia and electrolyte problems can follow. Strict fluid balance, blood pressure checks and electrolyte monitoring are needed.
答案: A · Leave the air bubble in and inject into a skin fold
LMWH is injected into a pinched skin fold, often on the abdomen, away from the umbilicus. The air bubble in prefilled syringes is left in, and the site is not rubbed, to reduce bruising.
答案: C · 低钾血症,因为液体回到循环中
在最初几小时,细胞破坏和液体转移可使钾升高。约 48–72 小时后,毛细血管完整性改善,液体回到循环,开始利尿,伴钾丢失和低钾血症。全程应监测电解质。
答案: C · When she can brake hard without pain
There is no fixed time. She can drive when she can brake suddenly, look over her shoulder and wear a seat belt comfortably. Many women need about 4 to 6 weeks, and insurance rules may apply.
答案: D · Uterine tone, bleeding and newborn injury
Precipitous labour increases the risk of cervical and perineal tears, uterine atony and haemorrhage, and of newborn injuries such as bruising or intracranial bleeding.
答案: B · Chronic diarrhoea, a swollen abdomen, irritability and poor weight gain
Gluten damages the small bowel lining in coeliac disease, causing malabsorption with chronic diarrhoea, bulky stools, abdominal distension, irritability and faltering growth. Diagnosis uses blood antibody tests and often a bowel biopsy while still eating gluten.
答案: D · This is the temporary "honeymoon" phase; insulin is still needed
After insulin treatment starts, remaining beta cells may recover partly, so insulin needs fall for weeks to months. This partial remission is temporary; insulin should continue, with doses adjusted to glucose readings.
答案: B · Acknowledge the member's contribution and invite others to share their views
The leader manages a monopolising member by acknowledging her and redirecting to others, and may discuss it privately. This keeps the group safe and gives everyone a chance to take part.
答案: D · Sudden death from a heart arrhythmia, even on the first use
Inhalants can sensitise the heart to adrenaline and cause fatal arrhythmias ("sudden sniffing death"), even in first-time users. They can also cause suffocation and brain, liver and kidney damage.
答案: T = 39.2 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: c = 13 mmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.2 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V₁ = 2 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 185 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: D = 20 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 25.9 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 6 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = −20 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为负:患者丢失的液体多于摄入的液体。
答案: V = 125 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: SI = 0.5
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
在通常的 0.5–0.7 之内或之下。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:代谢性碱中毒时 PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 = 44.9–48.9 mmHg,所以实测 59 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性酸中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: Δ 比值 = 1.5
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
介于 1 和 2 之间:单纯高阴离子间隙酸中毒。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心房率 = 71 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
三度阻滞,伴窄 QRS 交界性逸搏(通常为 40–60 次/分)。
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